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ENVIRONMENTAL
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION: EARTH SYSTEM
Atmosphere
Composition and Structure of the Atmosphere
Physics of the Atmosphere
Chemistry of the Atmosphere
The Atmosphere as a Colloidal Medium
Nature of Atmospheric Circulation
Modeling of Atmospheric Circulation
Hydrosphere
Atmospheric Waters
Hydrological Cycle on the Earth
Surface Water
Ice in the Hydrosphere
Underground Water
Oceans
Water of Living Organisms
Cryosphere
Ice in the Atmosphere
Glaciosphere
Glaciers
Sea ice
Snow Cover
Cryolithozone (Cryolithic Zone)
Lithosphere
Pedosphere
Soil Components
Vertical Structure of Soils
Soil-Forming Factors
Age of Soils
Types of Soils
Importance of Soils
Biota or Living Matter
Cycle of Energy on the Earth
Cycle of Matter
Geosphere
The Geographical Envelope
Biosphere
Chemical Composition of the Earth’s Envelopes (Spheres)
Correspondence Between the Notions “Biosphere” and
“Geographical Envelope”
COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF THE
ATMOSPHERE
Brief history of atmospheric studies
Meteorological elements and units of measurement
Composition of atmospheric air
Structure of the Atmosphere
CHEMISTRY
OF THE ATMOSPHERE
Types of atmospheric reactions
Photolysis reactions
Bimolecular reactions
Association reactions
Heterogeneous reactions
Reactions in the aqueous environment
Atmospheric catalytic cycles
Residence time and photochemical equilibrium
Groups or “families” of atmospheric compounds
Odd oxygen group
Hydrogen group
Nitrogen group
Carbon containing compounds
Chlorine and bromine group
Sulfur group
Snow cover
Distribution and properties of snow cover
Wind transport of snow (snow drifting)
Snow cover in a routine life
Climatic role of snow cover
GENESIS OF SOILS
AND FACTORS OF THE SOIL FORMATION
Soil
Formation is the Global Natural Process
Factors
of the Soil Formation
Stages
of the Soil Formation
Processes
of the Soil Formation
Genesis
of Soils under Different Ecologic Conditions
Genesis of soils under conditions
of cryogenesis
Genesis of soils of forest landscapes in a zone
of moderate climate
Genesis of soils in landscapes of steppes and
prairies
Genesis of soils in arid landscapes of semi-deserts
and deserts
Genesis of soils in wet tropics and subtropics
Genesis of soils under conditions of excessive
moistening
Genesis of salinized (saline) soils
Genesis of soils under conditions of the present-day
sedimentation
DIVERSITY AND
SYSTEMATIZATION OF SOILS
Introduction:
Diversity of Factors is the Diversity of Soil Characteristics (Properties)
Classifications
of Soils
World
Soil Maps and World Classifications
Classification
"WRB for Soil Resources"
Diversity
of Soils and Problems of the Biodiversity Preservation
ENVIRONMENTAL
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION: CLIMATE SYSTEM
Processes in the Global Climate System
Atmospheric Processes
Atmospheric Radiative Fluxes
Water Vapor.
Clouds.
Atmospheric Precipitation
Atmospheric Chemistry.
Atmospheric Circulation.
Snow and Ice Processes
Ocean Processes.
Ocean Surface Layer Fluxes.
Ocean Deep Convection and Circulation
Terrestrial Processes
Climate Now
Classification of climates.
Observed Climate as it is seen today
Weather Systems and Weather Forecasting
Airmasses and atmospheric fronts
Cyclones and anticyclones
Circulation systems
Weather forecasting
Intentional weather modification
Observed Climate Change in the Last Century
Surface Temperature and Precipitation Patterns
Upper Air Temperature
Atmospheric Circulation Patterns
Oceans
Glaciers and Ice Sheets
Permafrost
Climatic Extremes
Global Climate Models
Climate Projections and Future Climate
Model Experiments
Emission Scenarios and Climate Projections
Global Patterns of Expected Climate Change
Regional Trends
International Activity Concerning Climate
World Climate Program (WCP)
Global Climate Observing System (GCOS)
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
UN FCCC and The Kyoto
Protocol on Climate Change
CLASSIFICATION
OF THE CLIMATE OF THE EARTH
Methods of climatic classification
Descriptive Classifications
Objective empiric classifications
Landscape-geographical classifications
Genetic classifications
METHODS
OF CLIMATE CLASSIFICATION
General structure of methods of climate classification
Approaches to geographical classifications of climates
Soil classifications of climates
Hydrological classifications of climates
Landscape-geographical classification
OBJECTIVE
EMPIRIC CLASSIFICATIONS OF EARTH'S CLIMATE
Koeppen’s classification
Thornthwaite’s classification
GENETIC
CLASSIFICATIONS OF EARTH'S CLIMATE
Classifications derived from air mass analysis
Alisov’s classification
Strahler’s classification
Classifications based on characteristics of surface energy
budget
APPLIED
CLASSIFICATIONS OF EARTH’S CLIMATE
Agroclimatic classification
Bioclimatic classification
Climatic classifications for technical purposes
Energy-climatic classifications
CLIMATE ZONES
AND TYPES
General circulation features of major climate belts
Equatorial belt
Subequatorial belt (the belt of equatorial monsoons)
Tropical belt
Subtropical belt
Temperate belt
Subarctic belt
Arctic and Antarctic zones
Heat-balance components in the main climate zones
Brief description of the main climatic types
Low-latitude climatic types
Equatorial continental climate
Subequatorial continental (equatorial monsoon) climate
Tropical continental climate
Tropical west-coast climate
Tropical east-coast climate
Mid-latitude climatic types
Subtropical continental climate
Subtropical west-coast climate
Subtropical east-coast climate
Continental climate of the temperate belt
West-coast climate of the temperate belt
East-coast climate of the temperate belt
High-latitude climatic types
Subarctic continental climate
Arctic continental climate
Antarctic continental climate
Arctic oceanic climate
LOW-LATITUDE
CLIMATE ZONES AND CLIMATE TYPES
Equatorial belt
Subequatorial belt
Tropical belt
Continental climate
Oceanic climate
Climate of the western coasts of the continents
Climate of the eastern coasts of the continents
MIDDLE-LATITUDE
CLIMATE ZONES AND CLIMATE TYPES
Subtropical belt
Subtropical continental climate
Subtropical oceanic climate
Subtropical west-coast climate
Subtropical east-coast climate
Temperate belt
Continental climate
Oceanic climate
Climate of the western coasts of the continents
Climate of the eastern coasts of the continents
HIGH-LATITUDE
CLIMATE ZONES AND CLIMATE TYPES
Climate types of subarctic and subantarctic zones
Continental climate
Oceanic climate
Climate types in Arctic and
Antarctic Regions
Climates of Arctic Region
Climates of Antarctic continent
Highland continental region
Glacial slope
Coastal region
HIGH-ALTITUDE
CLIMATE ZONES AND CLIMATE TYPES
Basic controlling factors of highland climates
Highland climates in different climatic zones
Low-latitude highland climates
Middle-latitude highland climates
LOCAL
CLIMATES
Spatial scales of local climate
Heat balance of active surface
Turbulent mixing
Local circulation
Influence of relief on the local climate formation
FACTORS
CONTROLLING LOCAL CLIMATE
Radiation balance
Turbulent heat flow
Heat flow into the ground
Evaporation
URBAN
CLIMATE: THE MOST IMPORTANT MODIFIED
Cities of high and middle latitudes
Temperature and humidity
Wind
Cloudiness, precipitation, fogs, thunderstorms
Low latitudes cities
FOREST CLIMATES
Solar radiation.
Temperature and humidity.
Wind
Precipitation.
ISLAND
CLIMATES
Ocean and Sea Islands
Surface air temperature
Atmospheric precipitation
Air humidity
Wind
Lake and river islands
HISTORY
OF THE EARTHS CLIMATIC CHANGES
Methods of palaeoclimatic reconstructions
Lithological-genetic methods
Ecological-palaeontological methods
Isotopic and geochemical methods
Dating techniques
Ancient climates of the Earth (Late Precambrian and
Palaeozoic)
Precambrian climates
Early Palaeozoic climates
Late Palaeozoic climates
Mesozoic climates
Triassic and Jurassic climates
Cretaceous climates (135-65 Ma)
Cenozoic climatic change
The Palaeogene climates
Climates of the Neogene time
Pleistocene and Holocene climates
Climates of the historical time
HISTORY
OF PLANETARY AND GEOLOGICAL FACTORS
Main planetary factors of climatic variations
Changes in solar radiation over the geological past
Changes in solar luminosity or brightness throughout the
Earths history
Changes in the incoming solar radiation due to orbital
factors
Variations in solar radiation due to changes in atmosphere's
transparency
Changes of Earths atmospheric composition as a forcing factor
Albedo variations as a climatic forcing factor
Main geology factors of climate variations
Continental displacement (or continental drift) and mountain
building as climatic factors
Role of ocean gateways and sea-level changes in the past
climatic changes
HISTORY
OF ATMOSPHERIC COMPOSITION
Evolution of the Ancient Atmosphere
The Earlier Secondary Earths Atmosphere (the Precambrian and
Cambrian Period)
Atmospheric Composition during the Phanerozoic Time
History of the Cenozoic Atmosphere
Atmosphere gas composition in the Pre-Pleistocene epoch
Changes in Atmospheric Composition during the Pleistocene
Anthropogenic Changes in the Atmospheric Composition
GLOBAL
CLIMATIC CATASTROPHES (VOLCANISM AND IMPACT EVENTS)
Climatic catastrophes in the Earths history
Volcanic explosions and climate
Types of volcanic eruptions
Explosive eruptions and climate
The fall of celestrial bodies and climate
Climatic events at the Cretaceous-Cenozoic boundary
Local climatic catastrophes
Dust storms
Smoke from forest fires
Anthropogenic climatic catastrophes
CHANGES
IN BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
The Global Carbon Cycle
Natural Carbon Cycle
Changes in carbon cycle on the time scale over 106 years
Changes in Carbon Cycle during Glacial-Interglacial
Transitions
Changes in the Carbon Cycle on the Time Scale of Decades to
Thousands of Years
Anthropogenic Disturbances of the Global Carbon Cycle
Observed Changes in Atmospheric CO2 Concentration
Historical CO2 Emissions
Historical Changes in CO2 Concentration and Projections of
Future -Concentrations
The Nitrogen Cycle
GREENHOUSE
GASES, AEROSOLS AND OZONE LAYER
Parameters connected with atmospheric substances and their
effects on climate
Greenhouse gases
Aerosols
CARBON
DIOXIDE
Carbon dioxide sources and sinks
Carbon dioxide content distributions in the atmosphere
Climatic impact of carbon dioxide
METHANE
Methane sources
Methane sinks
Distribution of methane content in the atmosphere
Methane concentration trends
The influence of methane on climate
HALOCARBONS
Halocarbon sources
Halocarbons sinks
The influence of halocarbons on climate
Distribution of halocarbons content in the atmosphere
NITROUS
OXIDE
Nitrous oxide sources
Nitrous oxide sinks
Distribution of nitrous oxide content in the atmosphere
The influence of nitrous oxide on climate
TROPOSPHERIC
OZONE AND RELATED TRACE GASES
Ozone photochemical sources and sinks
Tropospheric ozone content measurements
Ozone and the environment
Tropospheric ozone forming species
Nitrogen oxides
Carbon monoxide
Non-Methane Hydrocarbons
Hydrogen radicals
PHYSICS
OF AEROSOLS AND THEIR EFFECT ON CLIMATE
Atmospheric aerosol sources and sinks
Physico-chemical properties of aerosols
Aerosol effects on climate
REDUCTION
OF THE OZONE LAYER
Photochemistry of stratospheric ozone
Stratospheric ozone: spatial distribution and seasonal
variations
Antarctic ozone hole
Ozone in the Northern hemisphere and nonpolar regions
GEOGRAPHY
Scope of Geography
Definitions
Physical Geography
Human Geography
Landscapes and Regions
Methods and Techniques
Applied Geography
Geographical Education
Main Topics and Fields of Geography
Physical Geography
Geomorphology
Climatology
Hydrology
Biogeography
Soil Geography
Coastal Systems
Ocean Geography
Mountain Geoecology
Natural Resources
Natural Hazards
Land Degradation and Desertification
Human Geography
Historical Geography
Population Geography
Cultural and Social Geography
Agricultural and Rural Geography
Geography of Industry and Transport
Geography of Economic Activities
Urban Geography
Medical Geography
Political Geography
Geography of Tourism
Regional Geography
Technical Geography
Geodesy and Topography
Mapping and Atlas Production
Remote Sensing
Geographical Information Systems
Modeling
Historical Perspectives
Early Geography
Foundations
Development
Controversy
The Concept of Changing Paradigms
Environmental Determinism and Possibilism
Regional and General Geography
The Quantitative Revolution
Consolidation
Future Trends
FOUNDATIONS
OF GEOGRAPHY
Development of modern geographic thought
Scientific context
Institutional context
Social context
Political context
The basic geographic approach
Regions
Diversification of subject matters
In physical geography
In Human geography
Plurality of approaches
Spatial analysis and spatial science
Humanistic approach.
Behavioral geography
Radical approaches.
Feminist geography
The present dilemma between physical and human geography
Evolution within physical geography
Evolution within human geography
Is unity possible?
The future
MAIN
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT OF GEOGRAPHY
The
predecessors
Chinese
Greek
and Latin
Middle
Ages
Muslim
Geography
Christian
geography
Early
Modern Times
Astronomy
and Universal Geography
The
contribution of Kant to geography
Founders
of Modern Geography
Humboldt
Ritter
New
directions
Darwin’s influence in Geography
Physical
Geography and Physiography
Environmental
Determinism and Possibilism
The
regional approach
The
Present
Quantitative
and technical tools
Diversification
and globalisation
International
Aspects
The
Future
THEORY
AND METHODS
Theories
The basic scientific principles
The main conceptions in human geography
The regional approach
Systematic studies
The coexistence of naturalism and historicism
Methods
Methods related to scale
About fieldwork
The structure of field research
Field sampling
Examples of geographical field research
Teaching based on direct observation
Display and analysis of data
GEOGRAPHICAL
EDUCATION
What is Geographical Education?
Geography and Geographical Education
The Aims of Geographical Education
The Place of Geography in the Formal Education Curriculum
The Place of Geography in NonFormal Education
The Components of Geographical Education
How is Geographical Education Relevant to Society and
Environment?
The Development of Life Roles through Rediscovering
Geographical Education
Knowledge, Thinking Processes, Practical Skills, and Values
Developed through Geographical Education
Social and Environmental Action
Contribution to Current Community Concerns
Past Trends in Geographical Education
“Capes-and-Bays” Geography
Teaching Regional Geography
Teaching Systematic Geography
An Inquiry Approach to Geographical Education
Current Trends in Geographical Education
International Survey of Geographical Education
Problem-Based Learning through Geographical Education
Socially Critical Approaches to Geographical Education
Developing International Understanding
Developing Intercultural Understanding
Promoting Environmental Education
Promoting Equity of Opportunity
through Geographical Education
Developing Geographically Informed People
Current Practices in Geographical Education
Learning and Teaching Geography
Developing Geography Curricula
Teaching and Learning Strategies
Teaching Resources
Information Technology in Geographical Education
Standards and Assessment
Fieldwork in Geographical Education
Challenges for Geographical Education
Policy Developments in Different Countries on Geographical
Education
Technology and Information Expansion
Contributing to the Development of Active, Informed Citizens
Around the World
Geography Teacher Preparation and Professional Development
Bias in Resources Used to Teach Geography
A Presence in the Formal Education Curriculum
Community Relevance
Future Directions
Rediscovering Geographical Education
Relevance for Lifelong Learning
PHYSICAL
GEOGRAPHY
Historical Background
Chinese, Islamic, and Classical Greek and Roman Scholarship
Translation of Ptolemys Geography into Latin, and the Age of
Discovery
The General and Special Geographies of Varenius
Seventeenth-Century Scientific Revolution, Eighteenth-Century
Natural theology and Natural History
The Role of Immanuel Kant (17241804)
Emergence of "That European Science"
The Role of Alexander von Humboldt (17691859)
The Origins of "Process" Studies: Jean Baptiste de
Lamarck (17441829), Charles Lyell (17971875), and Charles Darwin (18091882)
The Two Traditions of American Physical Geography and W.M.
Davis (18501935)
Contemporary Physical Geography
The Main Fields of Study
Geomorphology
Climatology
Hydrology
Biogeography
Soil Geography
Coastal Systems
Mountain Geoecology
Natural Hazards
Landscape Ecology
Biogeochemical Cycles
Past Environmental Change
Natural Archives and Proxy Data
Historical Sketch of Data Sources
Cryosphere
Hydrosphere
Lithosphere
Biosphere
Anthroposphere
The Quaternary Period
The Pleistocene Epoch
The Holocene Epoch
Global Environmental Change
Tectonic Movements and Volcanism
Atmospheric and Oceanic Circulation
Energy Budgets
Mass Budgets
Snow and Ice
Land Use and Land Cover
Biomass Energy
Applied Physical Geography
Applied Geomorphology
Applied Climatology
Applied Hydrology
Applied Biogeography
Applied Soil Geography
Applied Coastal Systems
Applied Mountain Geoecology
Environmental Impact Analysis
Biogeochemical Cycling
Geographic Information Systems
Remote Sensing
GEOMORPHOLOGY
Development of Geomorphology
Early History
Evolution of the Main Concepts
Organizations and Journals
Main Concepts, Research Lines, and Methods
Klimatische Geomorphologie and Climatic Geomorphology
Process Geomorphology, Field Experiments, Simulation, and
Modeling
Structural Geomorphology
Petrovariance
Tectonic Geomorphology
Volcanic Geomorphology
Weathering and Soils
Morphoclimatic Zones and Special Landform Associations
Glacial Geomorphology
Periglacial Geomorphology
Tropical Geomorphology
Arid Geomorphology
Karst
Coasts
Lakes
Process Domains
Mass Movements
Fluvial Geomorphology
Slope Runoff Processes
Planational Processes
Wind Action
Environmental and Global Change
Paleoclimatic Research
Environmental Change
Anthropogenic Geomorphology
Hazards
Global Change
CLIMATE
AS LIFESUPPORT SYSTEMS: A CLIMATOLOGICAL OVERVIEW
Physical Representation
Köppen’s Classification
Water Budget Approach
Phenological Approach
Synoptic Climatological Study
Historical Viewpoint
Impacts of Climate on Systems
Adaptation
Management and Vulnerability
Acclimatization and Acclimation
Historical Change
Interactions between Climate and Human Activities
Human Activities and Environmental Change
Agriculture
Fisheries
Population
Small-Scale Interactions between Climate and Human Activities
BIOGEOGRAPHY
History of biogeography
Development of the spatial tradition
Ecological biogeography
The major approaches to biogeography
The spatial tradition: phytogeography and zoogeography
The spatial tradition: historical biogeography
The spatial tradition: vicariance and dispersal
The ecological tradition: ecosystems
The ecological tradition: palaeoecology
The ecological tradition: island biogeography
Towards an applied biogeography
Conservation biology
Global change studies
Ecosystem management
COASTAL
SYSTEMS
Coasts
Spatial and Temporal Scales
Development and Behavior
Coastal Systems
Coastal Systems Approach in Practice
Expected Developments
Case Study: The Coast of Suriname
THE
OCEAN SYSTEM
Managing the Ocean Ecosystem
The Tectonic Mechanisms
Ocean Governance in Relation to Plates and Margins
The Role of the Water Column
AtmosphereOcean Interaction
Ocean Ecological Diversity
The Ocean Facing Climate Change
The Hydrological Cycle
Sea-Level Rise
Impacts from Atmosphere and Ocean Circulation
Cardinal Deductions
Ocean Resource Uses
Evolution of Ocean Exploitation
Key Ocean Resources
Exploitation of Ocean Biomass
Exploitation of Non-Living Resources
Ocean Communication Functions
Ocean Governance
Governance Framework
Governance Spaces
The Sustainable Ocean
Recapitulation
MOUNTAIN
GEOECOLOGY. THE EVOLUTION OF INTELLECTUALLYBASED SCHOLARSHIP INTO A
POLITICAL FORCE FOR SUSTAINABLE MOUNTAIN DEVELOPMENT
Scientific Foundation
Development before 1990
Scientific Progress
Political Engagement
Current Status
Research Priorities
Specific Research Requirements
Indicators, Knowledge Management, and Sustainable Development
NATURAL
HAZARDS
Vulnerability-The Fundamental Counterpart of Hazard
Risk--The Product of Hazard and Vulnerability
Perception--A Vital Factor in Hazard and Risk Analysis
Natural Hazards and the Classification Problem
Natural Hazard Mitigation
Managing Natural Hazards
Natural Hazards and the Question of Poverty
LAND DEGRADATION
AND DESERTIFICATION
A brief historical review of land degradation
The forms of land degradation
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