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BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE FOUNDATIONS
The Beginning
of Modern Biological Science
What Is Biological Life?
Microscopic Life
The Origin of Life
Evolution and the Origin of
Species
Genetics and
Evolution
Genetics in the Modern World
The Mechanisms Involved in
Evolution
Humanity, the Environment, and
Evolution
Artificial Evolution
The Molecular
Basis of Life
The Cell
The Gene
The Biochemical Processes of
Life
Genetic Manipulation
The Molecular
Tree of Life
Morphological Methods of
Classifying Species
Biochemical Methods of
Classifying Species
Gene-Based Classification
Life On Earth Over the Last 4
Billion Years
The Limits of
Life on Earth
Water as a Limiting Factor
Ionic Concentration as a
Limiting Factor
Temperature as a Limiting Factor
Acidity/Alkalinity as a Limiting
Factor
Gaseous Atmosphere as a Limiting
Factor
Energy as a Limiting Factor
The Edges of the Envelope
Life
Elsewhere in the Universe
Is Carbon-Based Life Alone?
Carbon-Based Life on the Planets
Carbon-Based Life in Other Star
Systems
Panspermia
ORGANIC CHEMICALS INVOLVED IN
LIFE PROCESSES
Proteins
Amino Acids
Polypeptide chains
Primary structure
Secondary structure
Tertiary structure
Quaternary structure
Enzymes
Carbohydrates
Monosaccarides
Stereo-isomerization
Cyclic Structures
Disaccharides
Polysaccharides
Lipids
Fatty acids
Fatty acids in humans
Triacyglycerols
Phospholipids
Steroids
Nucleic Acids
Nucleotides
The nucleic acids
DNA
DNA can have different
structural features
RNA
CARBON FIXATION
Carbon
fixation in higher plants
The
Light Dependent Reactions of
Plant Photosynthesis
The
Light Independent Reactions of
Photosynthesis: Synthesis of
Carbohydrates
C3,
C4 and CAM metabolism
Algae
Bacteria
Purple Bacteria
Green Sulfur Bacteria
Green Gliding Bacteria
Heliobacteria
Global
photosynthesis and the
atmosphere
EUKARYOTE CELL BIOLOGY
Origin of
Eukaryotes
Cellular
differentiation in multicellular
organisms
Plants
Animals
Eukaryotic
cell structure
Organization
of eukaryotic cells
Plasma membrane
Extracellular matrices
Proteins synthesis and transport
Cytoskeleton and movement
Nucleus
Genomes
Gene expression
Maintaining the genome
Organelles
The cell
cycle
Mitosis
Meiosis
Regulation of
cell growth
Signal transduction
Programmed cell death
Cancer
Experimental
models
Yeast
Arabidopsis
Drosophila
The mouse
Cell culture
Separation of cellular contents
Tracing biochemical pathways
Future
Investigations
CELL THEORY, PROPERTIES OF CELLS
AND THEIR DIVERSITY
The
Composition of Life
Origin of organic molecules
RNA and the origin of life
Cell as the
unit of life
Cell theory
The theory of organisms
Cell size
The diversity
of life
Origin of the first cell
The endosymbiont hypothesis
Cellular
diversity
Plant tissue diversity
Dermal tissue
Vascular tissue
Ground tissue
Animal tissue diversity
Epithelial
tissue
Muscle tissue
Connective tissue
Nervous tissue
Blood
Sensory cells
Germ cells
Tissue
maintenance and renewal
Tissue renewal rates
Stem cells
Discussion
CELL MORPHOLOGY AND ORGANIZATION
The cytoplasm
Membranes
Structure
The cell cortex
Transmembrane proteins
Endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus
Lysosomes
Extracellular
matrices
Glycocalyx
Cell walls
Cytoskeleton
Microfilaments or Actin
filaments
Intermediate filaments
Microtubules
Cilia and
Flagella
Connections
between cells
Plasmodesmata
Desmosomes
Tight junctions
Gap junctions
Vacuoles
Central vacuoles
Contractile vacuoles
Cell
organization
Membrane
transport systems
Passive transport
Active transport
Endocytosis
Protein
synthesis
Initiation
Elongation
Termination
Protein
targeting
Proteins made in the cytoplasm
Chaperones
Proteins made on the rough
endoplasmic reticulum
The Golgi apparatus
Vesicles
Protein
breakdown
Proteosomes
Lysosomes
Cell movement
Microfilaments and cell movement
Myosin
Microtubules
Cilia and flagella movement
CELL NUCLEUS AND CHROMATIN
STRUCTURE
The nucleus
The nuclear membrane
The nuclear pore
Structure of the nuclear pore
Function of the nuclear pore
The lamina
The genome
Chromosomes
The nucleosome
Histones
DNA condensation
Functional domains
Centromere
Telomere
DNA
replication
Origin of replication
DNA polymerases
Nucleosome replication
Nucleolus
rRNA genes and expression
Ribosome assembly and export
Transcription
RNA polymerases
Eukaryote promotors
Initiation of transcription
RNA elongation
Termination of transcription
Regulation of transcription
Chromatin structure and
transcription
mRNA
processing and turnover
Capping
Polyadenylation
Splicing
RNA editing
tRNA
processing and turnover
ORGANELLES AND OTHER STRUCTURES
IN CELL BIOLOGY
The distribution and function of
the mitochondrion
The structure of the
mitochondrion
The mitochondrial genome
The mitochondrial genetic code
and translation mechanism
Maternal inheritance of the
mitochondrion
Distribution and structure of
the chloroplast
The chloroplast genome
The chloroplast genetic code
Maternal inheritance of the
chloroplast
An endosymbiotic origin for the
mitochondrion and chloroplast
Evolution of the mitochondrion
Evolution of the Chloroplast
Other possibly endosymbiotic
organelles
MITOSIS, CYTOKINESIS, MEIOSIS
AND APOPTOSIS
The eukaryote
cell cycle
Phases
Mitosis
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Cytokinesis
Meiosis
Stages of meiosis
Fertilization
and development
Regulators of
Cell cycle
Checkpoints
G1/S checkpoint
G2/M checkpoint
Mitosis checkpoint
Maturation promoting factor
Cyclin dependent protein kinases
Diversity and action
Regulation
Cyclin regulation of mitosis
Growth factors
Inhibitors of cell cycle
progression
Programmed
cell death
Triggers of apoptosis
Pathways leading to apoptosis
CELL GROWTH REGULATION,
TRANSFORMATION AND METASTASES
Signal
molecules
Transmembrane signals for large
signal molecules
Small signal molecules
Switches of
intracellular molecules
Regulation of signal molecules
Cell surface
receptors
Ion-channel-linked receptors
G-protein-linked receptors
General structure and function
of G-protein-receptors.
G-proteins and ion-channels
G-proteins and enzymes.
Enzyme-linked receptors
Protein tyrosine kinases
Signaling domains SH2 and SH3.
Ras/MAPK pathway
The JAK/STAT pathway
Cancer
Ras proto-oncogenesis
Signal transduction
Kinases
Insertions, deletions and
translocations
Viral oncogenesis
DNA viruses
RNA viruses
Tumor suppressor genes
MICROBIOLOGY
Taxonomy
Morphology
Eucaryote Microorganisms -
Protozoa
Eucaryote Microorganisms - Algae
Eucaryotic Microorganisms -
Fungi
Procaryotic Microorganisms –
Bacteria and Archaea
Viruses
Chemical Taxonomy
Molecular Taxonomy
Protein based taxonomy
DNA
based taxonomy
Ribosomal DNA based taxonomy
Limitation of single gene based
taxonomy
Genome based phylogeny and
taxonomy
Genome sequencing
Genomics and phylogeny
The
future for genome phylogenies
Horizontal genetic exchange
Transformation
Transduction
Conjugation
Procaryote
and Eucaryote Microbial Cell
Structure
Procaryote Cell Structure
Bacterial Spores and Cysts
The
subcellular structure of
eucaryotic Microorganisms
Morphology of Fungi
Morphology of Protists
Cultivation
of Microorganisms
Control of
Microorganisms
Major Groups
of Procaryotes
Major Groups
of Eucaryotic Microorganisms
Viruses
Pathogenesis
and Microorganisms
Antibiotics
and Microorganisms
Microbial
Biotechnology
PROKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURE AND
FUNCTION
Nucleotide
Cytoplasmic
Matrix
Ribosomes
Plasmids, episomes and
bacteriophage
Inclusion bodies and storage
granules
Endospores
Intracytoplasmic membranes
The Cell
Envelope
Cytoplasmic Membrane
The Periplasmic Space
The Cell Wall
The Outer Membrane
Components
Exterior to the Cell Wall
EPS
Flagella
Pili
Fimbriae
Differentiation and
multicellularity
Differentiation in Actinomycetes
Multicellularity and
differentiation in cyanobacteria
Differentiation in Myxobacteria
PROKARYOTIC DIVERSITY
The Archae,
Cyanobacteria, Green
phototrophs, and Deeply
Branching Genera
Thermoprotei, Sulfolobi and
Barophiles
The Methanogens
The Halobacteria
The Thermoplasms
The Thermococci
Aquifex and relatives
Thermotogas and Geotogas
The Deinococci
Thermi
Chrysiogenes
The Chlorflexi and
Herpetosiphons
Thermomicrobia
Prochloron and the Cyanobacteria
Chlorobia
Proteobacteria
The a -Proteobacteria
The b Proteobacteria
The c Proteobacteria
The d Proteobacteria
The e Proteobacteria
The low G+C
gram-positives
The high G+C
gram-positives
The
Planctomycetes, Spirochetes,
Fibrobacter, Bacteroides and
Fusobacteria
The Planctomycetes
The Spirochetes
The Fibrobacters
The Bacteroides
The Flavobacteria
The Sphingobacteria,
Flexibacteria and Cytophaga
The Fusobacteria
PROKARYOTE GENETICS
Mechanism of
DNA Mutation, Transfer and
Recombination in Bacteria
Mutation
Types of mutations
DNA damage
DNA Repair
Transformation
Gram -ve Bacteria
Low G+C% Gram +ve Bacteria
High G+C% Gram +ve Bacteria
Archaea
Transduction
Generalized Transduction
Specialized Transduction
Importance of Generalized and
Specialized Transduction.
Conjugation
Plasmids
Plasmids in Gram -ve Bacteria
Plasmids in Low G+C% Gram +ve
Bacteria
Linear Plasmids
Plasmids in the Archaea
Conjugation
Gram -ve Bacteria
Low G+C% Gram +ve Bacteria
Linear Chromosomes
Recombination
in viruses
Prokaryote
Genetics and Evolution
Multiple Drug Resistant Plasmids
Transposition
Gene Scavenging
Bacterial Species, do they
really exist?
PROKARYOTIC GROWTH, NUTRITION
AND PHYSIOLOGY
Bacterial
Cell Growth and Division
The bacterial
cell cycle and its regulation
Bacterial
Population Growth
Bacterial
Nutrition
Carbon sources and assimilation
Nitrogen sources and
assimilation
Phosphate sources and
assimilation
Sulfur sources and assimilation
Nutrient reserves
Energy
generation
Aerobic respiration
Anaerobic respiration
Fermentation
Photosynthesis
Bacterial
Nutrient Stress Responses
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE FUNDAMENTALS
(SYSTEMATICS)
Life on Earth
The
Geological Scenario and the
Major Evolutionary Transitions
Some Fundamentals of Geology
Geological Changes, Evolutionary
Transitions, and Extinctions
Major Evolutionary Transitions
The Cell
The Procaryotic Cell
Autotrophs and Heterotrophs
The Eucaryotic Cell
The Emergence of Eucaryotes and
the Kingdoms of Life
Routes to
Multicellularity
Aggregative
Plasmodial
Clonal
Soma and Germ Plasm
Growth and
Development
Life-Cycles
Direct and Indirect Development
The Life-Cycles of Cnidarians,
Rotifers, and Aphids
Plant Life-Cycles
Individual,
Colony, Society
Populations,
Species, and Communities
The
Continuity of Life
Descent with Modification
Mutations
Gene Assortment: Inheriting
Variation
Selection, Random Change
Adaptation
Life Forms
Living In the Sea
Nutrition
From the Sea to the Internal
Waters
Water to Land
Biodiversity
The Science
of Taxonomy
HISTORY AND SCOPE OF BIOLOGICAL
SCIENCES
Ancient and
Medieval Times up to the 16th
Century
Post-Renaissance Developments
Paleontology
and Evolution
Morphology
and Physiology
Genetics
Behavior
Ecology and
Applied Ecology
HISTORY OF BIOLOGY
Antiquity
Medieval and
Renaissance times
The
development of morphology
Palaeontology
Taxonomy and
Evolution
Histology,
Reproduction and embryology
Physiology
Genetics
Ecology and
Ethology
Pathology
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING BEINGS
Former
Conceptions of Life
The Birth of Biology
Metabolism, 'Irritability' and
Cellular Organisation
The Becoming of Individuals and
Species
Inadequacy of Mechanistic
Interpretations and the Revival
of Vitalism
The Gestation of the Concept of
Biological Information
Information Flux is an
Endowment of Every Living Being
First Conclusions on Living
Beings
Current
Conceptions About Living Beings
The Rise of Genetics
The Mighty Advance of Dynamic
Biochemistry
The Sources of Information Flux
and the Self-Control in Living
Beings
Limits and Peculiarities of the
Sensory Flux
Self Regulation of Genetic
Information
Information and Needs
Death and Life
Ontogeny and Morphogenesis
Evolution
Is it Conceivable that a Living
Being May Not Evolve?
The Darwinian Assumptions
The Subjects of Darwin's
Evolution
Summary of
the Properties of Living Beings
LEVELS OF BIOTIC ORGANISATION
The
development of organisation at
individual level
The
development of organisation:
embryology and cycles
The
palaeontological account
The intertaxa
organisation and evolution
Symbioses and
parasitism
POPULATIONS, SPECIES AND
COMMUNITIES
Populations
and Species
The Species Concept
The Population Concept
Population Size
Constant Reproduction of
Populations
Variation in Population Size
Species
Communities
General Aspects
Composition of Communities
Island Biogeography
Biological Invasions
Interaction
Interspecific Competition
Mutualism
Host-parasite Relations
Predator-prey Relations
PHILOSOPHY OF BIOLOGICAL
SCIENCES
Basic issues in the philosophy
of biology: Is biology an
experimental or an historical
discipline?
Methodological debates
Realism
versus nominalism
The
population concept: problems and
inferences
Bioethics:
some sample problems
THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF
EARLY LIFE
The need for
organic molecules
Asymmetry in
organic molecules
The need for
suitable energy
Rise and fall
of organic chemistry of galaxies
Organic
chemistry on orbiting bodies
The need for
liquid water
Evolution of
hydrospheres
Self-organization and
self-duplication
Encapsulation
and translation
The first
ecosystems
Probability
and stability of a biosphere
THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF PRIMITIVE
LIFE: ORIGIN AND FORMATION
The role of
water
Possible
environments for the production
of prebiotic organic molecules
Production of CHONS in the
atmosphere
Submarine hydrothermal systems
Delivery of extraterrestrial
CHONS
Availability
of the primitive building blocks
Production of homochiral
building blocks
FROM THE BUILDING BLOCKS TO LIFE
A Primitive
Cellular Life
Prebiotic RNA
The Montmorillonite
Clay-catalyzed Synthesis of RNA
Metal Ion Catalysis of RNA
Synthesis
Template-directed RNA Synthesis
Prebiotic Polypeptides
Polypeptide Formation on Clay
Minerals
Peptide Elongation on Minerals
Polypeptide Formation via
N-Carboxyanhydrides
Proteinoids
Polypeptide Formation Using
Simulated Hydrothermal
Conditions
Thermal Conversion of Amino
Acid Amides to Polypeptides
Prebiotic Polypeptide Structure
and Stability
Prebiotic Polypeptide Catalysis
Primitive
Life Based on RNA: The RNA World
RNA Analogs and Surrogates
Nucleotides with a Pyrophosphate
Backbone
Pyranosyl-RNA, a Hexose Nucleic
Acid, and Threose-RNA, a Tetrose
Nucleic Acid
Peptide Nucleic Acid
Autocatalysis
Preceding RNA
THE EARLIEST ANAEROBIC LIFE AND
EARLY AEROBIC LIFE
The first
cells
From
anaerobic heterotrophy to
autotrophy
Ancient
oxygen-producing photosynthesis
The first
aerobic microorganisms
Origin of
organelles of bacterial cells
Origin of the
nucleus
Origin and
evolution of the mitochondrion
Origin and
evolution of plastids
Origin of the
cilium
Rise of
highly differentiated organisms
EVOLUTION
Major
Transitions in Evolution
Natural Selection and Levels of
Organization
Different
Approaches to the Study of
Evolution
Microevolution
The Causes of Evolution
Natural Selection
Adaptive
Evolution
Adaptation
Adaptations and Adaptive
Responses
Adaptation and Exaptation
Coevolution
Neutral
Evolution
Species and
Speciation
Macroevolution
Phylogeny
Evolution,
Complexity, and the Information
Content of Living Beings
HISTORY OF EVOLUTIONARY THEORY
Scientific
Historiography and the Analysis
of the Theoretical Concepts
The
Definition of "Species"
The Problem
of Classification
Linnaeus, the
"System" and the "Methods"
Buffon and
the nuance of Nature
The
Historical Dimension and the
Re-orientation of Natural
History
Lamarck and
Transformism
Paleontology
and Geology
THE DARWINIAN VIEW OF LIFE
Evolutionism
and Darwinism
"What are the
Laws of Life?"
The Structure
of a New Theoretical Picture
The Origin of
Species and its Critics
Toward a
Natural History of Mind
EVOLUTION AND THE SPECIES
CONCEPT
Historical
Aspects
Pre-Darwin
Darwin's View
Post-Darwin (Modern Synthesis)
Current
Paradigms and Challenges
Philosophical Perspectives: The
Individual Species Concept
Current Paradigm: The Biological
Species Concept
Isolating Barriers
Limitations of the Biological
Species Concept
Non-universality
Inapplicability to
Multi-dimensional Situations
Incomplete Speciation
Challenges, Extensions and
Alternatives to the Biological
Species Concept
Evolutionary Species Concepts
Phenetic Species Concept
Ecological Species Concept
Recognition Species Concept
Cohesion Species Concept
Phylogenetic Species Concepts
A Case Study
The Future:
Towards a Holistic Approach?
Which Criteria?
Monism versus Pluralism
SPECIATION AND INTRA-SPECIFIC
TAXA
Time frame for speciation
Ecological considerations
Genetic models of speciation
Speciation by natural selection
Wright’s shifting balance theory
Founder-effect models
How many "speciation genes"?
Genetic properties of species
Modes of speciation
Allopatric speciation
Intra-specific taxa
Clinal variation
Vicariance model
Peripatric model
Reinforcement
Parapatric speciation
Stasipatric speciation: the role
of chromosomes
Chromosome rearrangements and
meiotic segregation
Post-zygotic isolation: two case
studies
Sympatric speciation
Speciation in plants
Speciation by polyploidy
Speciation by hybridization
NATURAL SELECTION AND THE
EFFECTS OF ECOLOGICAL
INTERACTION ON POPULATIONS
Natural
Selection
The Different Aspects of Natural
Selection
Stabilising Selection
Directional Selection
Disruptive Selection
Frequency-dependent Selection
Density-dependent Selection
Sexual Selection
Kin Selection
Indirect Selection
Non-selective
Aspects of Population Biology
Genetic Drift
Founder Effect
Bottleneck Effect
Gene Flow
Deterministic
and Stochastic Concerns in
Population Biology
Interactions between Genotypes
and Environment
Metapopulations
Local Extinction
Recolonisation
CELL AND TISSUE STRUCTURE IN
ANIMALS AND PLANTS
Cell and
tissue development
Development of Animal Cells and
Tissues
Developmental Processes in
Higher Plants
Tissue Origins in Higher
Flowering Plants
Cell Division, Growth and
Differentiation
Initials in Meristems
The Size of Cells
Methods in Histology and
Cytology
Cell
Ultrastructure
Cell Membrane
Plant Cell Wall
Cellulose and Other Cell Wall
Substances
Cell Wall Formation
Middle Lamella, Primary Cell
Wall and Secondary Cell Wall
Communication between Cells
Cytoplasm
The Nucleus of Eukaryotic Cells
Nuclear Membrane
Genetic Material
Other Structures in the
Cytoplasm
Mitochondria
Plastids
Endomembrane System (Lysosomes,
Golgi Complex, ER, Vacuoles)
Ribosomes
Cytoskeleton (Microtubules,
Actin Filaments)
Projections from the Animal Cell
Surface (Flagella, Cilia,
Microvilli)
Selected
Examples of Differentiated Cell
Types
Pigment Cells
Muscle Cells
Plant Root Hairs
Vessel Elements in Plants
General
Organisation of Tissues
Tissue Systems in Plants
Animal Extracellular Matrix
(ECM)
Some Examples
of Specialised Tissue Types
Plant Epidermis
Xylem
Animal Cartilage and Bone
Epithelia
Nervous Tissue
BIOLOGICAL HOMEOSTASIS
Stabilization
Homeostasis
Logic and Structure of the
Homeostat
The Components of the Homeostat:
the Measuring Unit
The Components of the Homeostat:
The Effector
The Control of Controllers
The Control of Stores
Homeorrhesis,
the Control of Behavior
Trajectory Control
Smooth Control
Coordinate Control in
Homeostasis and Homeorrhesis
Control of
Development and Reproduction
Exogenous and Endogenous Clock
and the Calendar
Embryonic Regulation
Control of the Flux of Genetic
Information
PATTERNS AND RATES OF SPECIES
EVOLUTION
Biological
and morphological species
concepts
Evidence from
ecology and palaeobiology
The cichlid fishes of the
African rift valley
Sticklebacks and speciation by
natural selection
Ice ages and species migrations
The punctuated equilibrium
revolution
Stasis
Speciation and ecophenotypic
change: the rift valley snails
Fossil
evidence of speciation.
Microfossils
Shallow marine invertebrates
Terrestrial vertebrates
Species
diversification through time
Biodiversity today
Biodiversity through time
patterns of increase
Biodiversity through time land
and sea compared
Explanations for patterns of
diversification
Evolutionary
patterns and processes
CLASSIFICATION AND DIVERSITY OF
LIFE FORMS
Natural vs.
artificial classifications
Classification vs. system
Nomenclature
The international codes of
nomenclature
Nomenclatural stability:
problems and solutions
Ethnotaxonomy
The diversity
of Life
Nature and origin of biological
diversity
Species known and estimated
Big genera
Taxonomy and
nomenclature of domesticated
animals and cultivated plants
The tools of
classification
HISTORICAL REVIEW OF SYSTEMATIC
BIOLOGY AND NOMENCLATURE
The Origins
From
Classical Antiquity to the
Renaissance Encyclopaedias
From the
First Monographers to Linnaeus
Concepts and
Definitions: Species, Homology,
Analogy
The Impact of
Evolutionary Theory
The Last Few
Decades
Nomenclature
Natural
History Collections
METABOLIC DIVERSITY IN
PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTES
The
Thermodynamic and Mechanistic
Basis of Cellular Metabolism
Dissimilatory Metabolism
The Phototrophic Way of Life
The Chemheterotrophic Way of
Life
The Chemoautotrophic Way of Life
Assimilatory Metabolism
Autotrophy
Heterotrophy
Metabolic
Diversity Within the Three
Domains of Life: Archaea,
Bacteria and Eucarya
Phototrophy
The Use of Light as an Energy
Source
Oxygenic Photosynthesis of
Plants and Cyanobacteria
Anoxygenic Photosynthesis in
Bacteria
Retinal Pigment-Based
Phototrophy
Heterotrophy
Aerobic Respiration
Anaerobic Respiration
Fermentation
Chemoautotrophy
Nitrification
Oxidation of Reduced Sulfur
Compounds
Oxidation of Reduced Iron and
Manganese
Aerobic Oxidation of Hydrogen
Anaerobic Oxidation of Hydrogen:
Methanogens and Homoacetogens
Metabolic
Diversity and the Cycles of
Carbon, Nitrogen, Sulfur and
Other Elements
DIVERSITY OF FORM, FUNCTION AND
ADAPTATION IN MICROORGANISMS
Cell Size and
Cell Shape in the Procaryotes
Small is Powerful
Appendages and Other Strategies
to Increase Cell Surface
The Largest Procaryotes
The Outer
Layers of the Procaryotic Cell
The Cell Wall and the
Cytoplasmic Membrane
Fimbriae and Pili
Exopolysaccharides
Special
Intracellular Structures
Intracellular Membrane
Structures
Storage Materials
Motility
Organelles
Flagella
Magnetosomes
Gas Vesicles
Survival and
Dispersal Forms
Multicellular
Differentiation and Special Life
Cycles in Procaryotes
Heterocysts and Other
Specialized Cells of
Cyanobacteria
Bdellovibrio, the Intracellular
Predator of Bacteria
The Life Cycle of Caulobacter
and Hyphomicrobium
The Life Cycle of Myxobacteria
Diversity of Form, Function, and
Adaptation The Lower Eucaryotes
and the Procaryotes Compared
DIVERSITY OF FORM, FUNCTION, AND
ADAPTATION IN FUNGI
Diversity of
Form
Hyphae and Mycelium
Fungal Cells
Colonization of Substrates
Reproduction
Sexual Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction
Spore Dispersal
Diversity of
Function
Nutrition
Saprotrophic Fungi
Parasitic Fungi
Symbiotic Fungi
Mycorrhizas
Lichens
Endophytes
Adaptation
Adaptation to Terrestrial
Habitats
Temperature
Economic
Relevance of Fungi
Plant diseases
Food Spoilage
Mycotoxins
Drugs
Food Production
Edible Mushrooms
EVOLUTIONARY AND MOLECULAR
TAXONOMY
Basic
Concepts
Metabolism, Proteins, and
Nucleic Acids
Nuclear and Organellar Genomes
Inheritance of Genomes
Mutation and Molecular Evolution
Molecular
Methods used in Systematics
Allozymes
DNA/DNA Hybridization
Restriction Fragment Length
Polymorphisms (RFLP)
Restriction Site Mapping
DNA Sequencing
Phylogenetic
Analysis
Distance Methods
Parsimony Methods
Maximum Likelihood Methods
Relative Merits of the Three
Approaches
Reliability of Inferred Trees
Questions and Precautions
Future
Developments
SYSTEMATICS OF THE MICROBIAL
KINGDOM(S) AND FUNGI
The Emergence
of the Microbial World
Timetable of Events
Universal Ancestor and Early
Eucaryotes
Microbial
Systematics
Higher Order Classification
Different Approaches to the
Study of Microbial Diversity
The Study of Procaryotes
The Study of Eucaryotes
Microbial
Species Concepts
Eucaryotic Species
Procaryotic Species
Rules of
Nomenclature
The Microbial
Tree of Life
The Procaryotes
The Eucaryotes
SYSTEMATICS OF ARCHAEA AND
BACTERIA
Systematics,
Taxonomy and Nomenclature of
Procaryotes A Few Definitions
Procaryote
Systematics - A Historical
Overview
The Formal
Framework of Description and
Nomenclature of Procaryotes
Approaches to
the Classification of
Procaryotes
Experimental Tools of Procaryote
Taxonomy
The Species Concept in the
Procaryote World
The Number of Described
Procaryote Species
Archaea and
Bacteria, the two Domains of the
Procaryotic World
The Recognition of the Archaea
as a Separate Domain
The Differences between Archaea
and Bacteria
Systematics of Archaea and the
Properties of the Main Groups of
Archaea
Systematics of Bacteria and the
Properties of the Main Groups of
Bacteria
How Many
Procaryote Species are there in
Nature?
PROTOCTISTA
Classification
Archamoeba
Neomonada
Rhizopoda
Mycetozoa
Foraminifera
Heliozoa
Radiozoa
Percolozoa
Euglenozoa
Dinozoa
Metamonada
Parabasala
Apicomplexa
Ciliophora
SYSTEMATICS OF FUNGI
Kingdom Fungi
Phylum Chytridiomycota
Phylum Zygomycota
Class Zygomycetes
Class Trichomycetes
Phylum Ascomycota
Class Archiascomycetes
Class Saccharomycetes
Class Ascomycetes
Group Plectomycetes
Group Pyrenomycetes
Group Discomycetes
Group Loculoascomycetes
Lichenized Ascomycetes
Conidial or Mitosporic Fungi
Phylum Basidiomycota
Class Urediniomycetes
Class Ustilaginomycetes
Class Hymenomycetes
LICHENS
Biology
Lichen
compounds
Evolution
Classification
Historical background
Diagnostic characters
Orders of Ascomycetes with
lichen-forming fungi
Orders of Basidiomycetes with
lichen-forming fungi
"Imperfect lichenized fungi"
Geographical
distribution
Ecology
Declining
lichens
Pollution
Loss of habitat
Future
investigations
SYSTEMATIC BOTANY
Aims and
Philosophy of Plant Systematics
The Role of Plant
Classifications in Life Support
Systems
Philosophical Basis of Plant
Classification
History and
Development of Plant Systematics
The First Empirical Plant
Classificatory Systems
The Herbals
The First Plant Taxonomists
Natural Plant Classifications
Phylogenetic Classifications
Modern Phylogenetic Plant
Classifications
Plant Molecular Systematics
Plant
Diversity
Is There a Plant Kingdom?
Evolution of Photosynthesis
Endosymbiotic Origin of Plastids
The Plant Kingdom
The First Land Plants
Plants with Vascular Tissue
The First Terrestrial Ecosystems
The Lycopod-line
The Sphenofern-line
The First Forests
The Evolution of Seeds
The First Seed Plants
The Pine-line
Ancient Mesozoic Floras
The Anthophyte Clade
Evolution of the Flower and
Flowering Plants
Why Did Angiosperms Evolve?
What Did the First Angiosperms
Look Like?
When Did the Angiosperms Evolve?
Where Did the Angiosperms
Evolve?
From What Gymnosperm Ancestor
Did the Angiosperms Evolve?
Flowering Plants
ALGAE
Cyanobacteria
Glaucophyta
Rhodophyta
Chlorophyta
Heterokontophyta
Dinophyta
Haptophyta
Cryptophyta
Euglenophyta
BRYOPHYTE SYSTEMATICS
Morphology
Anthocerotae (Hornworts)
Hepaticae (Liverworts)
Musci (Mosses)
Distinguishing Features Among
Groups
Sources of Systematic Data
Ontogeny
Cytology
Chemistry
Phylogenetic Relationships
Classification
Future Research
SYSTEMATIC ZOOLOGY:
INVERTEBRATES
Animal
phylogeny: data sources and
interpretation
Morphology
Molecules
Fossils
Systematic
zoology of the Metazoa
Porifera, Placozoa, Cnidaria,
Ctenophora
Platyhelminthes, Nemertea
Mollusca, Sipunculida,
Entoprocta, Cycliophora
Annelida, Pogonophora,
Myzostomida, Echiura
Onychophora, Tardigrada,
Arthropoda
Rotifera, Acanthocephala,
Gnathostomulida, Micrognathozoa
Priapulida, Kinorhyncha,
Loricifera
Nematoda, Nematomorpha,
Gastrotricha, Chaetognatha
Ectoprocta, Phoronida,
Brachiopoda
Urochordata, Cephalochordata
Enteropneusta, Pterobranchia,
Echinodermata
Some extant "problematica"
Alternative
hypotheses of metazoan
relationships
Morphology
Molecules
Reconciliation and pathways to
future progress
PORIFERA, CNIDARIA, AND
CTENOPHORA
Porifera
General Remarks
Importance
Form and Function
Size and Shape
Color, Consistency, and Surface
Water Current System
Cell Types
Skeleton
Life Cycle
Sexual Reproduction
Embryonic Development and Larvae
Asexual Reproduction
Regeneration, Individuality, and
Life Span
Ecology
Evolution and Paleontology
Phylogeny and Systematics
Cnidaria
General Remarks
Importance
Form and Function
Body Structure
Size
Color
Cell Types
Life Cycle
Sexual Reproduction and
Development
Asexual Reproduction
Coloniality and Polymorphism
Metagenetic Cycles
Ecology
Phylogeny and Systematics
Ctenophora
PLATYHELMINTHES, NEMERTEA, AND
“ASCHELMINTHES”
General Morphology
Platyhelminthes, the Flatworms
Nemertea (Nemertini), the Ribbon
Worms
“Aschelminthes”
Gnathifera
Gnathostomulida
Micrognathozoa (Limnognathia
Maerski)
Rotifera
Acanthocephala
Cycliophora (Symbion Pandora)
Nemathelminthes
Gastrotricha
Nematoda, the Roundworms
Nematomorpha, the Horsehair
Worms
Priapulida
Kinorhyncha
Loricifera
ANNELIDA
Basic annelid
organization
Coelom
Metamerism
Chaetae
Annelid
morphology
Body wall
Parapodia
Nervous system
Sense organs
Circulation and respiratory
structures
Segmental organs
Annelid
diversity
Polychaeta
Clitellata
Unusual or controversial groups
placed in Annelida
Echiura
Myzostomida
Siboglinidae (= Pogonophora and
Vestimentifera)
Annelid
behaviour and physiology
Locomotion
Feeding
Osmoregulation
Symbiosis
Annelid
reproduction and development
Asexual reproduction in
Polychaeta
Sexual reproduction in
Polychaeta
Sexual Reproduction in
Clitellata
Annelid
phylogeny
Fossil Annelida
ARTHROPODS OTHER THAN INSECTS
Myriapoda
Chilopoda
Diplopoda
Symphyla
Pauropoda
General aspects of myriapod
biology
Crustacea
Remipedia
Cephalocarida
Branchiopoda
Maxillopoda
Malacostraca
Phyllocarida
Hoplocarida
Eumalacostraca
General aspects of crustacean
biology
Cheliceriformes [=
Cheliceromorpha]
Pycnogonida
Chelicerata
Merostomata
Scorpiones
Pseudoscorpiones
Solifugae
Opiliones
Palpigradi
Amblypygi
Uropygi
Schizomida
Araneae
Ricinulei
Acari
General aspects of cheliceriform
biology
INSECTS AND OTHER HEXAPODOUS
ARTHROPODS
What are Insects?
Why are Insects so Successful?
Insect Life Cycles
Ecological Importance of Insects
Insect Diversity
Superclass: Hexapoda - Hexapods,
Insects sensu lato (i.e., in the
broad sense)
Class: Entognatha - Entognathans
(may be a paraphyletic group)
Class: Insecta sensu stricto (=
Ectognatha) - True Insects
MOLLUSCA
Relationships and Higher
Classification
General Morphology of the
Mollusca
Gastropoda
Major Groups, Diversity and
Adaptive Radiation
Bivalvia
(=Pelecypoda)
Major Groups, Diversity and
Adaptive Radiation
Cephalopoda
Major Groups, Diversity and
Adaptive Radiation
Other Classes
Living and Extinct
Polyplacophora
"Aplacophora" (Caudofoveata and
Solenogastres)
Monoplacophora (Helcionelloidea
and Tergomya)
Scaphopoda
Extinct Groups that have been
Suggested as Additional Classes
Current Knowledge
Geographic Diversity
Ecological Diversity
Conservation
Marine
Freshwater
Terrestrial
Economic
Importance
Bivalvia
Cephalopoda
Gastropoda
ECHINODERMATA
General
Morphology of the Echinodermata
Recognizing an Echinoderm
Organization of the Echinoderm
Body
Morphological Pattern
Embryological Pattern
Classification and Relationships
of the Echinodermata
Edrioasteroid-like Echinoderms
Morphology of Edrioasteroid-like
Echinoderms
Paleoecology of
Edrioasteroid-like Echinoderms
Blastozoans
Morphology of Blastozoans
Paleoecology of Blastozoans
Crinoidea
Morphology of Crinoids
Reproduction and Development of
Crinoids
Ecology and Behavior of Crinoids
Economic Importance of Crinoids
Asteroidea
Morphology of Asteroids
Reproduction and Development of
Asteroids
Ecology and Behavior of
Asteroids
Economic Importance of Asteroids
Ophiuroidea
Morphology of Ophiuroids
Reproduction and Development of
Ophiuroids
Ecology and Behavior of
Ophiuroids
Economic Importance of
Ophiuroids
Holothuroidea
Morphology of Holothuroids
Reproduction and Development of
Holothuroids
Ecology and Behavior of
Holothuroids
Economic Importance of
Holothuroids
Echinoidea
Morphology of Echinoids
Reproduction and Development of
Echinoids
Ecology and Behavior of
Echinoids
Economic Importance of Echinoids
Ongoing and Future Research
OTHER INVERTEBRATE TAXA
Mesozoa
Rhombozoa
Orthonectida
Xenoturbellida (Xenoturbella
Bocki)
Kamptozoa (Entoprocta)
Sipunculida
Tardigrada, the Water-bears
Onychophora, the Velvet Worms
Chaetognatha, the Arrow Worms
Tentaculata, or Lophophorata
Phoronida
Bryozoa (Ectoprocta)
Brachiopoda
Hemichordata
Pterobranchia
Enteropneusta
TUNICATA AND CEPHALOCHORDATA
Tunicata
Ascidiacea
Tunic
Morphology and Physiology
Reproduction and Development
Larval Morphology and
Metamorphosis
Ecology and Economic Relevance
Systematics
Thaliacea
Pyrosomes
Salps
Doliolids
Appendicularia
Morphology and Behavior
Relevance in Marine Ecosystems
Cephalochordata
Morphology and Physiology
Reproduction and Development
PISCES
The Biology of Fishes
Respiration
Osmoregulation
Buoyancy
Prey Detection and Predator
Avoidance
Reproduction
The Emergence of Fishes
Agnatha (Jawless Fishes)
Gnathostomata (Jawed Fishes)
Placodermi (Armored Fishes)
Acanthodii (Spiny-Finned Fishes)
Chondrichthyes (Cartilaginous
Fishes)
Sarcopterygii (Lobe-Finned
Fishes)
Actinopterygii (Ray-Finned
Fishes)
Basal (Pre-Teleostean)
Actinopterygians
The Teleostei
AMPHIBIA
Classification of Amphibia
Gymnophiona
Morphology
Life Cycle
Distribution
Feeding and Predators
Little-known Caecilians
Caudata
Morphology
Life Cycle
Distribution
Adult Variation
Feeding
Larval Variation
Anura
Morphology
Life Cycle
Variations in Life-history
Strategies
Distribution
Adult Variation
Tadpole Variation
Food
Vocalization
Sound Production
Hearing
Metamorphosis
Ecological Role
Declining Amphibians
Implicated Factors
Ultraviolet Radiation
Loss of Habitat
Introduced Predators
Pollutants
Fungus
Long-term Drought
Human Consumption
Skin Secretions
Future Investigations
REPTILES
Diversity and Systematics
A Brief Overview of the Families
of Extant Reptiles
The Role of Reptiles in
Ecosystems
Humans and Reptiles
The Global Conservation Status
of Reptiles
Threatening Processes
BIRDS
Basic attributes
Body
Feathers
Power production
Song
Life Span
Structure and Physiology
Outer shape
Integument
Feathers
Scales and Claws
Bill Covering
Wings
Legs
Tail
Feeding Apparatus
Bill
Mouth and Tongue
Digestive System
Urinary System.
Respiratory System.
Circulatory System.
Reproductive System.
Sensory System
Hearing
Sight
Smell.
Brain.
Temperature Regulation
Yearly Cycle
Establishing Territories
Courtship
Mating Systems
Nests
Eggs
Incubation
Hatching
Care of the young
Molt
Fall Migration
Direction Finding
Navigation
Winter
Spring
Flocking Behavior
Behavior
Distribution
Evolution and Classification
Origin and fossils
Classification.
Class Aves
Subclass Sauriurae (all extinct)
Subclass Ornithurae
Superorder Neornithae
MAMMALS
Mammal
characteristics
Hair
Epidermal glands
Lactation and
parental care
Cardiovascular
and respiratory specializations
Feeding
specializations
Improved auditory
acuity
An enlarged brain
Mammal evolution
Ancestors
Evolutionary
trends during therapsid-mammal
transition
The origin of
mammals
Early mammals
Systematics
Traditional
classification
Molecules remodel
the eutherian phylogenetic tree
Modern mammal
classification
Diversity and
conservation priorities
Diversity
Global threats
and conservation priorities
Future research
PRIMATE EVOLUTION
Archaic Primates
Early Euprimates“Primates of
Modern Aspect”
Adapiforms and Omomyiforms
Early Simians
Later Simian Radiations
Early Monkeys
The Epoch of the Apes
The Origins of Modern Primate G
Nonhuman Primates
The Human Lineage
Early Hominins
The Genus “Homo”
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