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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EARTH AND ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCES ENCYCLOPEDIA OF MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES ENCYCLOPEDIA OF BIOLOGICAL,PHYSIOLOGICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PHYSICAL SCIENCES,ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY RESOURCES ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CHEMICAL SCIENCES,ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY RESOURCES ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WATER SCIENCES,ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY RESOURCES ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ENERGY SCIENCES,ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY RESOURCES ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECOLOGICAL SCIENCES,ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY RESOURCES ENCYCLOPEDIA OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES,ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY RESOURCES ENCYCLOPEDIA OF HUMAN RESOURCES POLICY AND MANAGEMENT ENCYCLOPEDIA OF NATURAL RESOURCES POLICY AND MANAGEMENT ENCYCLOPEDIA OF DEVELOPMENT AND ECONOMIC RESOURCES ENCYCLOPEDIA OF INSTITUTIONAL AND INFRASTRUCTURAL RESOURCES ENCYCLOPEDIA OF TECHNOLOGY,INFORMATION, AND SYSTEMS MANAGEMENT RESOURCES ENCYCLOPEDIA OF REGIONAL SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT REVIEWS

The above simplified figure illuminates the essential interconnectedness of the sixteen component encyclopedias of EOLSS.

 In the real world, the various knowledge domains do not exist in isolation from each other. They form an integrated whole, with links in all directions. It is well known that all forms of human knowledge are inter-connected and inter-related. EOLSS mimics this complexity, the automatic inter-connectedness of the various subject categories facilitating navigation through the vast landscape of EOLSS knowledge. This provides the user with an effective and efficient tool to search, navigate and browse through each of the component encyclopedias, through any combination of the sixteen, or through the whole of EOLSS.

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WATER SCIENCES, ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY RESOURCES

CONTENT OUTLINE (partial listing)

THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

Composition of the Hydrosphere

Distribution of Water

Water in Oceans and Seas

Subsurface Water

Ice, Glaciers, Permanent Snow Cover

Subsurface Ice in Permafrost Zone

Water in Lakes and Reservoirs

Water in River Channels

Water in Swamps

Soil Moisture

Water in the Atmosphere

Biological Water

Schematic Diagram of the Hydrological Cycle

Water Exchange in Nature

Water Exchange between Ocean and Atmosphere: Precipitation and Evaporation from Water Surface

Water Exchange between Land and Atmosphere; Precipitation and Evaporation from Land

Water Exchange between Land and Ocean; River Runoff

Surface and Subsurface Water Interaction

On Man’s Activity Effects on the Hydrological Cycle

Transformation of Vegetation Cover and Earth's Surface

Forest and Forestry Effects

Land Plowing, Agricultural Practices, Use of Meadows as Pastures

Urbanization

Reservoirs and Hydromelioration Practices

Freshwater Use

Man's Impact on Climate by Changing Atmospheric Characteristics

Possible Climate Change due to Evaporation Increase

Climate Change Resulted from Changes in the Composition of the Atmosphere

World Water Balance

 

EXCHANGES OF WATER IN THE HYDROSPHERE

General information and classification of waters of hydrosphere

The notion of hydrosphere

Model of global hydrosphere reserves

General classification of hydrosphere waters

Water exchange and water balance of ocean

Circulation of ocean waters

Ocean water balance and its interconnection with salt balance

Moisture exchange in the ocean-atmosphere system

General circulation of atmosphere and horizontal moisture transfer

Water exchange between reserves

Level of World Ocean as an integral indicator of global water exchange

Variations of water storage in individual reserves

Modern variations of sea level and climate

Prospects for further investigations

 

TRANSFER OF ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE

Methodology for determination of horizontal moisture transfer components

On interpreting advective and eddy flows of moisture

Factors for water vapor flow formation

Circulation factors for moisture transfer formation

Atmospheric moisture content

Distribution of moisture flows over the earth globe

Geographical features of distribution of moisture flows

Regularities of distribution of zone average water vapor flows

Peculiarities of global-scale moisture transfer

Atmospheric moisture transfer over equator

Peculiarities of atmospheric moisture transfer in polar areas

Moisture transfer in the northern polar area

Moisture transfer in the southern polar area

Prospects for further investigations

 

WATER EXCHANGE BETWEEN LAND AND ATMOSPHERE

Interrelation of moisture exchange processes in the atmosphere – land system

Equation of relation between atmospheric water balances and land surface

General information about moisture rotation in the atmosphere

The basics of the semi-empirical theory of moisture circulation

Moisture rotation over continents

Land surface humidification

Evaporating capacity as a factor of humidification

Humidification characteristics of various territories of the terrestrial globe

Prospects for further investigations

 

WATER EXCHANGE BETWEEN LAND AND OCEANS

Global water exchange

Fresh water balance of the ocean and assessment of its accuracy

Efficient evaporation

Fresh water inflow and its role in water balance of oceans

Meridional fresh water flow in the World Ocean

Regional aspects of water exchange

Caspian Sea level as an integral indicator of moisture exchange in the system ocean-land

Influence of fresh water inflow on the range of ice cover of the Arctic Ocean

Prospects for further investigations

 

SURFACE AND GROUND WATER INTERACTION

Typical schemes of surface and ground water interaction

Schemes of forming recharge of ground water

Scheme of groundwater discharge formation

Function of the river bed resistance to surface and ground water interaction

Groundwater flow under a river bed

Surface and groundwater interaction in areas with different natural conditions

Plains and other relatively flat land

Mountain-folded areas

Permafrost zone

The role of groundwater function in the water balance of the land

Groundwater interaction with seas and big lakes

The impact of human activities on surface and ground water formation

 

HYDROSPHERE STRUCTURE AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO THE GLOBAL HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

Components of the hydrosphere

Oceans and seas

Subsurface water

Snow and ice storage

"Minor" components of the hydrosphere

Lakes

Swamps

Soil moisture

Rivers

Water vapor in the atmosphere

Role of individual components of the hydrosphere in the global hydrological cycle

 

ENERGY BALANCE AND THE ROLES OF THE SUN EARTH OCEANS AND ATMOSPHERE

Solar radiation

Solar constant

Direct and scattered radiation

Outgoing (long-wave) radiation

The radiation balance

The heat balance

The heat balance at the Earths surface

Heat balance of the earth-atmosphere system

Distribution of the energy (heat) balance components

Heat balance of the Earth and climate change

 

HYDROLOGICAL REGIONS AND WATER BALANCE

World Ocean and Continents of the Earth

Principles of hydrological regionalisation

General

Physiographic zones; Water balance

Basin and zonal principles

Principle of the leading factor

Other methodological approaches to regionalisation of territories

Multipurpose hydrological regionalization

 

ANTHROPOGENIC EFFECTS ON THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

On possible Change in Hydrological Cycle Components

Classification of Mans Activity Factors

Transformation of the Plant Cover and Earths Surface

Forest and Forestry Effects

Land Ploughing, Agricultural Practices, Use of Meadows as Pastures

Urbanization

Reservoirs and Hydromelioration Practices

Brief Conclusions on the Effect of the Earths Surface Change on the Hydrological Cycle

Freshwater Use

Mans Impact on Climate by Changing Atmospheric Characteristics

Possible Climate Change due to Evaporation Increase

Climate Change Resulted from Changes in the Composition of the Atmosphere

Anthropogenic Changes in the Composition of the Atmosphere

On Changes in Global Air Temperature and Precipitation

Expected Future Change in Climate Characteristics and Possible Results

 

OCEAN-LAND INTERACTION IN COASTAL ZONES AND EFFECT OF OCEAN-LEVEL CHANGE

Classification of the interaction processes between sea and river water

Classification of ocean-level oscillations

Short-term level oscillations

Level oscillations induced by astronomical forces: tides

Level oscillations induced by atmospheric effects: storm surges

Level oscillations induced by tectonic factors: tsunamis

Local level oscillations related to vertical movements of coastal areas

Principal directions of further research

 

WORLD WATER BALANCE

Water Balance Equations

Methods for Water Balance Components Computation

Water Balance of Land

Fresh Water Balance of Oceans

Global Water Balance

 

ATMOSPHERIC PRECIPITATION OF THE EARTH

Atmospheric precipitation over oceans

Atmospheric precipitation distribution over the World Ocean aquatory

Seasonal distribution of atmospheric precipitation

Atmospheric precipitation on the continents and islands

Atmospheric precipitation distribution on the territory

Europe

Asia

Africa

North America

South America

Australia and Oceania

Antarctica

Annual distribution of atmospheric precipitation

Europe

Asia

Africa

North America

South America

Australia and Oceania

Antarctica

 

EVAPORATION FROM THE SURFACE OF THE GLOBE

Evaporation from the surface of the World Ocean.

Method for evaporation calculation

Distribution of evaporation from the water area of the World Ocean

Distribution of evaporation from the surface of the World Ocean during a year

Evaporation from land.

Method for evaporation calculation

Distribution of evaporation from continents

Europe

Asia

Africa

North America

South America

Australia and Oceamia

Antarctica

Distribution of evaporation from land during a year

Europe

Asia

Africa

North America

South America

Australia and Oceania

Antarctica

 

RIVER RUNOFF TO OCEANS AND LAKES

Basic Data and Methodological Approaches

Dynamics of  River Water Inflow to Oceans from Continents

Europe

North and Central America

Africa

Asia

South America

Australia and Oceania

Antarctica

Dynamics of Freshwater Inflow to the World Ocean

Fresh Water Inflow to Endorheic Seas and Lakes

Caspian Sea

Aral Sea

 

GROUNDWATER DISCHARGE INTO THE WORLD OCEAN

Present-day concept of groundwater discharge into seas and oceans

Main notions and definitions

Methods for studying and assessing groundwater discharge into the sea

Quantitative assessing of groundwater discharge into the World Ocean

 

EVAPORATION

Background

Instruments and Methods to estimate natural evaporation

Instruments for evaporation measurements

Design methods for evaporation measurements based on the account of heat exchange  in the lower air layer and turbulent diffusion of water vapour                                  

Water balance method

Empirical methods for estimation of evaporation from natural surfaces

Complex schemes for evaporation computation

Transpiration

 

EVAPORATION FROM LAND, EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

Experimental methods for determining evaporation from land

Comparative assessment of contemporary experimental Methods for determining evaporation from land

Design methods for determining evaporation from land

Comparative assessment of design Methods for computation of evaporation from land

 

EVAPORATION FROM OPEN WATER SURFACE AND GROUNDWATER

Evaporation from free water surface

Brief historical survey

Instruments to study evaporation from water surface

Methods for evaporation measurements from open water surface

Method of pans

Energy balance method

Aerodynamic method

Computation of evaporation from empirical formulas

Evaporation from water surface in different physiographic features

Ground water evaporation

 

TRANSPIRATION

Cuticular transpiration

Stoma opening and transpiration

Transpiration measurements

Transpiration rate

Seasonal variability

Daily variations

Transpiration control

Evapotranspiration

 

PRECIPITATION

Spatial distribution of precipitation field

Measurement of precipitation

Precipitation process

Precipitation types

Snowfall and snow cover

Precipitation in changing climate

Artificial Precipitation

 

FORMATION OF PRECIPITATION

Basic information about precipitation

Relationship between precipitation and clouds

Dynamic factors of precipitation formation

Equations vapour and heat fluxes of water

Role of vertical motions in precipitation formation

Thermal stability in the cloud and the type of precipitation

The role of the entrainment of the ambient air into the cloud

Comparison of observations and theory

Formation of precipitation in cyclones and troughs

Spatial and temporary variations in the cloud and precipitation amount

Synoptic vortexes and precipitation

Role of baroclinicity in vortex formation

Seasonal and annual precipitation variations

The relationship between precipitation and the temperature and pressure fields

Microphysical processes of precipitation formation

Condensation and sublimation of water vapour

Coagulation of cloud particles

 

TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF PRECIPITATION

Precipitation forms

Liquid Precipitation

Rain, Drizzle and Freezing rain

Ground Liquid Precipitation (Dew and Liquid Deposit)

Solid Precipitation

Snow

Hail, Snow Pellet, Ice Pellet, Snow Corns, Ice Needles

Solid ground precipitation (ground hydrometeors)

Characteristics of precipitation regime

Total Precipitation Variability

Duration and Rate of Precipitation.

Classification of precipitation types by annual and daily variations

Classification of Precipitation by the Type of Annual Course

The equatorial type of annual precipitation course

Tropical type

Mediterranean type

Continental type of the middle latitudes

Marine type of the middle latitudes

Monsoon type

The polar type

Classification of precipitation by the type of daily variations

Continental type

Coastal type

Classification of precipitation by genesis

Frontal (cyclones) precipitation

Orographic precipitation

Convective precipitation

Monsoon precipitation

 

THE EXTREME PRECIPITATION

Statistic characteristics

Absolute maximum of intensity and amount of precipitation

Maximum duration of precipitation

Precipitation of extreme intensity

Hurricanes

Basic information

Inflows of heat and water vapour into a hurricane from the ocean

Advective inflow of cold air into a hurricane

Amount of precipitation in a hurricane

Spouts

Dust storms

Monsoons precipitation

Frontal precipitation

 

SNOW AND ITS DISTRIBUTION

Methods of the snow survey

Global scale distribution

Mountainous area

Landscape zones

Spatial distribution at a local scale

The informative-mapping analysis

Snow under forest canopy

Metamorphism of the snow crystals

Snow melting

Impact on business areas

Snow management

Purposes of the future investigations

 

ARTIFICIAL RAINFALL

History

Scientific Basis

Hygroscopic Seeding

Glaciogenic Seeding

Operational precipitation enhancement projects

Seeding modes

 

SURFACE WATER RUNOFF

The Nature of the Phenomenon

Hydrological cycle

Runoff Generation process

River basin

River  Feeding Kinds

Soil waters and evaporation

Underground waters and underground inflow to rivers

Indestructibility laws and water balance

Regime, hydrographs and characteristics of runoff

Spatial aspects of Runoff Generation

Water movement in channel system

The accompanying phenomena

Surface Runoff on the Earth

Runoff and Human Being

System of observations

Using of runoff and the problem of water resources

Anthropogenic Effects on Runoff

Surface Runoff Science

The Basic Conceptions of Hydrology and Runoff Study

The basic research aspects in the Field of Study of Runoff

The Future of Study of Runoff

 

RUNOFF GENERATION AND STORAGE IN WATERSHED

Processes and Phenomena on the Watershed Surface

Precipitation

Thermal Energy Exchange of the Basin Surface with the Atmosphere and Outer Space

Precipitation Interception by Vegetation Cover

Snow Cover Formation

Snowmelt and Snow Cover Destruction

Water Yield from Snow

Infiltration and Surface Runoff Generation

Depression Storage

Processes and Phenomena in Soil or Near-Surface Rock Layer

Thermaland Water-Physical Properties of Soils and Rocks

Thermal Energy Dynamics

Dynamics of Soil Waters

Evaporation

Runoff Transformation in Runoff Elements

Channel Runoff Transformation

The Relationship of Runoff and Storage in Watershed

The Runoff Generation Problem and Experimental Hydrology

Landscape is a Runoff Producing Complex and the Intersection of Science

The Peculiarities of Runoff Generation Conditions in Various Geographical Zones

 

SPACE CHARACTERS OF RUNOFF FORMATION

Principal classifications of river runoff formation and their space presentation

Methods for description of space runoff features and factors

Basic Methods for Runoff Characteristics and Factors Presentation in the Geographic Space

Basic Types of Models for a Description of Space Fields of Runoff Characteristics and Factors

Methods for Deterministic Space Models Preparation

Polynomial Interpolation

Linear Interpolation

Cubic and Bi-cubic Interpolation

Pointwise Interpolation and Windows

Methods for Deterministic-Stochastic Space Models Preparation

Validation

Space Correlation Functions

Space-Time Models of Runoff Fields and Factors

Plotting of Regional Dependences in Homogeneous Regions

Principal Types of Dependences

Dependences of Runoff Formation for Each Watershed

Common Areal Dependences of Parameters of Mean Annual Runoff Distribution

New information types as a perspective for estimating space specific features of runoff formation.

Remote Sensing Data and Electronic Maps

Basic Space River Runoff Characteristics and Factors Determined on the Basis of Remote Sensing Data

GIS as a perspective system to study space specific features of runoff characteristics.

 

HYDROLOGY OF SLOPING TERRAIN

The Peculiarities of Runoff Formation in Mountain Conditions

Spatial Interpolation of Meteorological Elements

The Influence of Altitude, Inclination and Slope Aspect on Runoff Formation

Mountain Erosion

Outburst Floods

Outbursts of Mountain Debris Dams

Outbursts of Ice Dammed Lakes

Outbursts of Intraglacial Reservoirs

Outbursts of Moraine Lakes

Debris Flows

Transport Debris Flow Process (α < α2)

Shear Debris Flow Process (α > α1)

Transport-Shear Debris Flow Process (α1 ≥α ≥ α2)

Movement of Debris Flows of High Density

Geography of Debris Flows

Catastrophic Debris Avalanches

Lahars

Slushflows

Landslides

Snow Avalanches

 

RIVER RUNOFF MODELING

Discrepancy of the term "Mathematical Model"

Two Essentially Various Classes of Mathematical Models

Deterministic Modeling

The Purposes of Modeling

Lumped and Distributed Models.

Some Usually Distinguished Types of Models

A System of Models or a United Universal Model?

Designing Principles of Mathematical Models of Runoff Formation

Creation of Complex Modeling System

Models of River Basin

Content of Runoff Formation Models

Modeling Regimes

Problems and Impasses of Modeling

The Basic Equations of Water Dynamics in a Basin

Calibration and Validation of Models

Spatial Inhomogeneity of Parameters

The Problem of Scale

Systematization of Model Parameters

The Problem of Generalization

Stochastic Modeling

Runoff Characteristics and Stochastic Hydrology

Remarks

Empirical Distribution Function

The Analytical Distribution Function

Estimation of the Analytical Distribution Function Parameters

Test of Goodness of Fit

Stochastic Model of Weather

Deterministic-Stochastic Modeling

River runoff Modeling Prospects

 

URBAN HYDROLOGY

Urbanized Landscape

Growth of Urban Population and Urbanized Territories

Water Use

Communal Water Use

Industrial Water Use

Transformation of the Surface and Water Bodies

Climatic Features of Urbanized Landscape

Factors Determining Climate Change

Air Temperature

Precipitation

Evaporation

Runoff

Regime Features

Spring Flood Runoff

Rain Flood Runoff

Water Balance

Quality of Surface and Underground Water

Pollution Sources

Household-Domestic Wastes

Surface Runoff from the Urban Territory

Discharge of Industrial Waste

Quality of Underground Water

Research Development

 

GROUNDWATER HYDROGEOLOGY

Groundwater classification

Main hydrological and physical properties of rocks

Porosity

Moisture capacity.

Water yield and saturation deficiency.

Permeability.

Groundwater origin

Main law of groundwater filtration

Groundwater reserves

Groundwater use.

 

INFILTRATION AND GROUNDWATER FORMATION

Main notion and definitions.

Methods for determining groundwater infiltration recharge

Peculiarities of groundwater formation.

Regime-forming factors

 

GROUNDWATER OF LOOSE (UNCONSOLIDATED) ROCKS.

Groundwater of alluvial and lake-alluvial deposits.

Groundwater of alluvial-proluvial deposits

Groundwater of glacial deposits

Groundwater of Quaternary marine deposits.

Groundwater of eolian deposits.

 

GROUNDWATER IN SEDIMENTARY, METAMORPHIC AND VOLCANIC ROCKS.

Groundwater of sedimentary mountain rocks

Groundwater of Sedimentary Deposits

Groundwater of Lithified Rocks in Mountain-folded areas.

Groundwater of volcanic rocks

Groundwater of Intrusive Rocks

Groundwater of Intrusive Sheets.

Groundwater of Effusive Volcanic and Volcanic-sedimentary Rocks

Groundwater of Volcanic Rocks of Areas of Recent Volcanism.

Groundwater of metamorphic rocks

 

KARSTIC AQUIFERS

Peculiarities of groundwater in the open karst

Extremely High Filtration Heterogeneity of Karst Rocks both in a Plane and along a Vertical

Vertical Filtration Zoning of Karst Massif

Low Capacity Characteristics of Carbonate Deposits

Intensive Relations Between Surface and Groundwater

Nonconformity of Surface and Underground Watersheds

Decrease of Karst Development, Filtration Properties and Water Abundance of Karst Aquifers with Depth

Occurrence of "Hanging" Aquifers, Formed over a Perched Water Type in Separate Either Less Permeable Not-karstified Interlayers, or in Clogged Earlier Karstified Sites of the Massif

Groundwater peculiarities in covered karst

Effect of technogenic conditions on karst and karst aquifers

Peculiarities of karst water regime and resources

 

GLACIERS AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE FOR THE EARTH NATURE

Development of glaciology

Ice as a natural substance

Snow and ice in the Nature system of the Earth

Snow line and glaciers

Regime of surface processes

Regime of internal processes

Runoff from glaciers

Potentialities for the glacier resource use

Interaction between glaciation and climate

Glacier oscillations

Past glaciation of the Earth

 

GENESIS AND GEOGRAPHICAL ASPECTS OF GLACIERS

Properties of natural ice

Cryosphere, glaciosphere, chionosphere

Snow-patches and glaciers

Basic boundary levels of snow and ice

Measures of glacierization

Occurrence of glaciers

Present-day glacierization of the Arctic

 

CLASSIFICATION OF GLACIERS

Geophysical classifications of glaciers

Morphological classification of glaciers. Mountain glacierization

Polar glacierization

Interaction between glaciers and the ocean

Processes at a glacier bed

 

ACCUMULATION, ABLATION, MASS BALANCE, AND RUNOFF FROM GLACIERS

Regime of glaciers and energy of glacierization

Accumulation processes

Ablation processes

Liquid water on glaciers

Runoff from glaciers

Internal accumulation of glaciers

Glacier mass balance

 

FLOW AND FLUCTUATIONS OF GLACIERS

Mechanism of flow

Stresses and deformations in glaciers

Thermal state of ice and glacier flows

Viscous-plastic flow and block sliding

Equations of the ice flow. Law of Glen

Glaciers of flow and spreading

Velocities of  glacial motion

Field of ice velocities

Fluctuations in ice velocities

Kinematic waves

Glacier tectonics

Glacier crevasses

Damming, merging and falls of glaciers

Glacial erosion and accumulation

Glacial erosion (exaration)

Exaration forms of relief

Glacial deposits

Fluctuations of glaciers

Forced fluctuations of glaciers

Fluctuations of glaciers during the last millenniums

 

MANIPULATION, USES AND BENEFITS OF GLACIERS, ICE AND SNOW

Engineering-glaciology problems

Mechanical principle of the effect

Thermal physical principle of the effects

Artificial intensification of melting of mountain glaciers

Experiments on blackening of glaciers

Possibilities to preserve glaciers

Use of polar glaciers

Utilization of icebergs

Water electric power from the ice sheets

 

INTERACTION BETWEEN GLACIATION AND CLIMATE

Global climatic role of the snow cover

Sea ice as a part of the global glaciation

Snow and ice influence on climate

Thermal non-equilibrium of the nival-glacial system

Glaciological forecast

Forthcoming warming and the fate of glaciers

 

WATER HAZARDS CAUSED BY NATURALLY-OCCURRING HYDROLOGIC EXTREMES

Definition of Hazard and Disaster

Hydrological Hazards or Water Hazards

Types of Water Hazards

Weather and Climate

Climate Change, Global Warming, and the Greenhouse Effect

Change of Precipitation with Global Warming and Urbanization

Mechanism of Heavy Rainfall

Mechanism of Localized Heavy Rainfall

The Record of Heavy Rainfall and Frequency Analysis

Soil Erosion at the Watershed Scale

Soil Erosion

Technical Methods to Prevent Soil Loss

Natural Factors Contributing to Soil Erosion

Forecasting of Erosion Losses

Impacts of Soil Erosion

Floods

Flood Disasters in a City

Flood Discharge

Landslides and Debris Flows

Definition of Landslides and Debris Flows

Initiation Mechanisms of Landslides and Debris Flows

Geotechnical Classification of Landslides and Post-Failure Motion

Droughts

Characteristics of Droughts

Reliability of Water Supply

Coastal Erosion and Remedial Measures

Disaster Management as a Risk Management

Disaster Risk Management

Measures for Preventing Water Disasters

Preparedness and Risk Awareness

 

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Growing Insights

Water Management in Ancient Civilizations

Recent Developments

Water Resources Management at the Beginning of the Twenty-First Century

The Working Field of Water Resources Management

Definition of the Field

Key Issues in Water Resources Management

Management Instruments

The Context of Water Resources Management

The Process of Water Resources Management

The Management Cycle

The Planning Phase

The Phase of Implementation and Control

Involvement of Stakeholders

The Organization of Water Resources Management

The Role of Government

Spatial Levels of Management

Local Level

Intermediate Level

National Level

International Level

Water Sector Capacity Building

Current Issues of Debate

Availability of Water

Water Demand and Scarcity

The Value of Water

Virtual Water Trade

Privatization

 

TRANS-BOUNDARY WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Integrated Water Resources Management as the Foundation

The Physical Dimension

The Non-physical Dimension

Sustainability: Incorporating the Time Perspective

The Political Pillar: Creating an Enabling Environment

Two Dimensions in Sharing International Rivers

Sectoral Integration

Cross-border Integration

International Collaboration

Good Neighborliness

Recognition of Riparian Interests

Developing Joint Activities

Turning a Crisis into an Opportunity

The LegalInstitutional Pillar

Legal Principles

International Aspects

Operationalizing the Principles

National Legal Frameworks

Institutional Aspects

Decentralizing Institutions

River Basin Institutions: Joint Commissions and River Basin Organizations

Privatization: PublicPrivate Partnerships

Economic Issues

The TechnicalOperational Pillar

Operational Issues: The Case of Flood Management

Operational Conditions for Artificial Floods

Technical Cooperation

Towards a Strategy for the Integrated Management of Shared River Basins

Integrated Demand and Supply Management

Reducing the Losses

Increasing the Water Yield

Decreasing Water Demand

Public Participation

Exploiting Interdependencies

 

WATER LAW AND INSTITUTIONS

Institutions, Policies and the Law

Management and Property Regimes of Water Resources

Institutions

Property Rights

The Law

Policies

A Legal Framework for Integrated Water Resources Management

National Water Legislation

Sources of Water Law

Roman Law

Civil Law: Roman-Dutch Law

Anglo-American Common Law: the Riparian Doctrine

The Prior Appropriation Doctrine

Recent Trends in Water Legislation

The System of Public Allocation

The System of Tradable Water Rights

The System of Proportional Water Rights

Water Allocation under Water Scarcity

Water Quality and Environmental Law

Natural Law

Roman Law

Roman-Dutch Law

Water Related Environmental Regulation

Environmental Water Requirements

Sanitation

Water Pollution

Legal Approaches to Water Related Environmental Issues

Principles Related to Water Quality

Water Quality Standards

Environmental Impact Assessments

Some Limitations of Regulating Water Quality

Managing Water Resources

Institutions Managing a Water Resources System

Water Management Activities

Financial Resources

Private Utilities in Operational Water Management

Improving Water Resources Management

The Role of the State in Water Resources Management

Public versus Private: The Nature of the Goods and Services

Institutional Aspects of Integrated Water Resources Management

 

WATER CONSERVATION IN ARID AND SEMI-ARID REGIONS

Understanding an Arid Water Resource Base

Institutional Framework

Water Legislation

Improving Water Legislation

Water Policy

Long Term Sector Policy

Water and Sanitation Objectives

Allocation of Responsibilities

Water Allocation Priorities

The First Priority

The Second Priority

Financial Sustainability

Urban Water Supply

Rural Water Supply

Irrigation Water Supply

Water Sector Management

Drought Management

Combating Desertification

Water Resource Development Planning

Food Supply Policy

Water Awareness Campaigns

Sector Coordination

Water Conservation Measures

Farm Dams

Sand Storage Dams

Large Dams

Groundwater

Conjunctive Use of Groundwater and Surface Water

Integrated Use of Surface Waters

A Systems Approach

Wastewater Utilization

Recycling

Re-use

Reclamation

Artificial Recharge Enhancement

Desalination

Water Quality

Cost Recovery

Water Demand Management

Policy Issues

Legal Issues

Technical Issues

Public Campaign

Water Cost

Environment

International Water Issues

 

ECONOMIC VALUATION OF WATER

Estimation of the cost and value of water

Values and costs in user sectors: some illustrative estimates

 

NON-WATERBORNE SANITATION AND WATER CONSERVATION

Paradigm shift, water conservation and sanitation

History of waterborne sanitation

Ecological sanitation and nutrient recycling

Vision for the future

 

WATER RESOURCES PLANNING

Planning and Management Issues: Some Case Studies

Kurds Seek Land, Turks Want Water

Sharing the Water of the Jordan River Basin

Mending the 'Mighty and Muddy' Missouri

The Salmon Wars

Wetland Preservation: A Groundswell of Support and Criticism

Lake Source Cooling: Aid to Environment, or Threat to Lake?

Managing Water in the Florida Everglades

Restoration of Europes Rivers and Seas

The Rhine

The Danube

North and Baltic Seas

Flood Management on the Senegal River

Why Plan, Why Manage?

Too Little Water

Too Much Water

Navigation

Too Much Contamination

Degradation of Aquatic and Riparian Ecosystems

River Bank Erosion

Reservoir Related Issues

System Components and Planning Scales

Spatial Scales for Planning and Management

Temporal Scales for Planning and Management

Planning and Management Processes

Top Down Planning and Management

Bottom Up Planning and Management

Technical Planning and Management Aspects

Financial Planning Aspects

Models for Impact Prediction and Evaluation

Planning and Management Products

Adaptive Integrated Policies

Sustainability

Post-Planning and Management Issues

Meeting the Planning and Management Challenges A Summary

 

WATER RESOURCES SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

Classification of Decision and Planning Problems

Space-time Aspects of Problems

Multipurpose versus Multi-goal Problems

Uncertainties

Basic Approaches

Benefit-cost and Benefit-risk Analysis

Bayesian Decision Theory (BDT)

Sequential Multiobjective Problem Solving (SEMOPS)

Cost-Effectiveness (CE)

Operations Research

Modern System Theoretic and Artificial Intelligence Methods

 

PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF WATER RESOURCES SYSTEMS

System Framework

System Elements

System Simulation or Experiment

Performance Indices

Figures of Merit

 

RELIABILITY OF OPERATION OF WATER RESOURCES SYSTEMS

Levels of Water Resources System Design

The Four Levels of Design

The Classical Approach (level I)

Reliability-based Procedure (levels II and III)

Consequence or Loss Function Based Procedure (level IV)

Examples   

Bridge Pier Design

Concrete Foundation Design

 

MULTI-CRITERION ANALYSIS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Concepts and Terminology in Multi-criterion Decision Making

Objectives

Attributes

Criteria

Decision Variables, Alternative Schemes and Parameters

Constraints

Decision Space and Objective Space

The Roles of the Decision Maker and Analyst

The Decision Maker’s Preference Structure

Goals, Aspiration Levels and Ideal Point

Possible Solution Types of Multi-criterion Decision Problems

Non-dominated Points and Efficient Solutions

Satisfactum Solutions

Equilibrium Points

Solution Procedures and Typology of MCA Techniques

A Paradigm for Multi-criterion Decision Making

Step 1

Step 2

Steps 3 and 4

Step 5

Step 6

Steps 7 and 8

Steps 9 and 10

Step 11

 

THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE AND HUMAN IMPACT ON IT

The Terrestrial Hydrological Cycle

Precipitation

Snow Cover and Ice

Interception and Depression Storage

Infiltration of Water into the Soil and Vertical Movement of Soil Moisture

Evapotranspiration

Groundwater and Groundwater Flow

River Runoff and Generation Mechanisms

The River Network and Movement of Water in River Channels

Modeling the Hydrological Cycle of a River Basin

Human Influence on the Terrestrial Hydrological Cycle

The Global Hydrological Cycle

Precipitation

Evaporation

Runoff from the Continents

The Role of the Terrestrial Hydrological Cycle in the Global Climate System and Global Change

 

WATER QUALITY AND STANDARDS

Health-related Water Quality

Microbial aspects

Chemical aspects

Radiological aspects

Acceptability aspects

Water contaminants

Microbial aspects

Bacterial pathogens of fecal origin

Viral pathogens of fecal origin

Protozoan pathogens of faecal origin

Helminths

Chemical aspects

Naturally occurring Chemicals

Chemicals from Industrial Sources and Human Dwellings

Inorganics

Organics

Chemicals from Agricultural Activities

Non-Pesticides

Insecticides

Herbicides and Fungicides

Radiological aspects

Units of radioactivity and radiation dose

Dose conversion factors

Radon in the water

Standards

microbial aspects

DALYs

microbial hazards in drinking-water

The specific indicator for microvial aspects

Chemical aspects

Threshold chemicals

Non-threshold chemicals

Radiological aspects

Water quality for different sector and use

Water quality and standards for agriculture

Rainfall

Irrigation

Water quality and standards for aquaculture

Aquaculture

Fisheries

Water quality and standards for industrial water

Cooling water

Ultra-pure water

Water quality and standards for emergency and disaster use

Practical strategy in emergencies

Monitoring the water quality

Microbial guidelines

Guidelines for chemicals and radiation

Water quality standards for aquatic environment

Environmental quality standards for human health

Environmental quality standards for the conservation of the living environment

Effluent standard

 

GROUNDWATER

Basic concepts on groundwater

Evolution of the hydrological cycle concept

Hydrogeology as science

Underground reservoirs

Natural chemistry of groundwater and contamination

Groundwater characterization and management

Hydrogeological process simulation

 

ORIGIN, DISTRIBUTION, FORMATION, AND EFFECTS

The Hydrologic Cycle

Concept and Characteristics

Component Processes and Systems Structure

The Water Balance, or Water Budget

The Storage and Flow of Groundwater

Basic Hydraulic Properties and Terminology

Darcy’s Law and the Hydraulic Head

Groundwater Terminology

Fluid-Driving Force Types and Regional Flow Patterns

Groundwater as a Geological Agent

Basic Causes of Groundwater’s Geological Agency

Interaction between Groundwater and its Environment: In Situ Effects

Flow: A Systematic Transport and Distribution Mechanism

Ubiquity and Simultaneity

The Main Processes

Chemical Processes

Physical Processes

Kinetic or Transport Processes

Effects and Manifestations

Hydraulics and Hydrology

Chemistry and Mineralogy

Vegetation

Soil and Rock Mechanics

Geomorphology

Transport and Accumulation

 

GROUNDWATER IN IGNEOUS, METAMORPHIC, AND SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Rocks as Receptacles for Water

Porosity in Natural Rocks

Classification of Porosity

Factors Controlling Porosity in Natural Rocks

Agencies Producing and/or Modifying Porosity in Natural Rocks

The Rock Framework as Regional Flow Medium: Hydraulic Continuity

Groundwater in Different Rock Types

Groundwater in Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks

Genesis, Types, and Basic Properties of Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks

Storage, Yield, and Transmission

Chemical Quality

Groundwater in Sedimentary Rocks

Classification of Sedimentary Rocks

Clastic Sediments (Unconsolidated Material)

Consolidated (Indurated, Lithified) Sedimentary Rocks

 

GROUNDWATER AND SURFACE WATER INTERACTIONS

General Approach

Groundwater and Surface Water Interactions

Rain and the Feeding of Groundwater

Interactions between Rivers and Groundwater

Exchanges between Surface Water Accumulations and Groundwater

Interactions between Glaciers, Snowy Mantle, and Groundwater

Artificial Aquifer Recharge

Interactions between Seawater and Groundwater

Localized Points of Exchange between Groundwater and Surface Water

The Contributions of Deep Groundwater

Tracing Surface Water and Groundwater

 

CATCHMENT WATER BALANCE, CLIMATE AND GROUNDWATER

Catchment water balance a brief consideration

Vegetation water use theory and observations

Radiation balance and evaporation

Sources of water used by vegetation

Patterns of water use

Groundwater dependency of vegetation

Obligate and opportunistic groundwater use

Groundwater attributes of importance to ecosystems

Threats to groundwater and groundwater dependent ecosystems

Climate and catchment water balances

 

GROUNDWATER RECHARGE

Groundwater Flow Systems

System Extensions

Sources and Mechanisms of Recharge

Conceptual Models of Recharge

Methodologies for Recharge Estimation

Physical Methods for Recharge Estimation

Indirect Physical Methods

Direct Physical Methods

Tracers for Recharge Estimation

Accuracy of Recharge Estimates

Factors Influencing Recharge, Predictive Relationships, and Recharge Regionalization

Factors Influencing Recharge

Predictive Relations and Recharge Regionalization

Difficulties and Challenges in Recharge Estimation

 

TYPICAL HYDROGEOLOGICAL SCENARIOS

Unconsolidated sediments

Fluvial deposits

Tectonic valley-filling deposits

Eolian deposits

Coastal plain deposits

Glacial deposits

Hard rocks

Igneous (plutonic) and metamorphic rocks

Igneous (volcanic) rocks

Consolidated sediments

Karst

Regions of climatic extremes

Arid regions

Perennialy frozen ground regions

 

GROUNDWATER IN MOUNTAIN REGIONS

Conceptual Model for Groundwater Flow in Mountains

Conceptual Model for Groundwater Flow and Heat Transport

The Conceptual Model at Yucca Mountain, Nevada

Heat Transport in Mountainous Regions

Groundwater and Surface Water Interactions in Mountainous Regions

Groundwater Resources of the Mountainous Regions of British Columbia in Canada

Groundwater Resources

Groundwater Use

Environmental Considerations

 

GROUNDWATER IN KARST REGIONS

Karst Geology and Hydrogeology

Karstification Process

Depth of Karstification

Karst Porosity

Development of Joints, Faults, and Openings in Limestones

Joints Due to Elevation

Joints Due to Compression

Conjugate Joints Associated with Folding

Tension Joints (Gashes) in Folds

Faults: Open and Closed

Openings Due to Chemical Changes

Carbonate Rocks

Karst Springs

Ponors (Swallow Holes)

Estavelles

Submarine Springs

Basic Theories on Karst Groundwater Circulation

Karst Aquifers

Evolution of Karst Aquifers

Fluctuation of the Water Table

Average Velocity of Water Flow in Karst

Hydraulic Characteristics of Karst Aquifers

Methods of Karst Hydrogeological Research

Natural Tracers

Artificial Tracers

Coastal Aquifers in Karst Regions

Discharge of Coastal Aquifers

Relationship Between Fresh and Saline Water

Proposed Criteria for Groundwater Protection Zoning in Karst Regions

Actual Zoning Concept Applied in Non-Karstic Areas

Basic Hydrogeological Parameters for Zoning Criteria in Karst

Criteria for Zoning

Restrictions in Protection Zones

Particularities of Zoning Procedures in Karst

Water Quality Monitoring

Protection Planning

 

GROUNDWATER IN ARID AND SEMIARID REGIONS

Groundwater Recharge

Hydrogeological Domains

Hard Rocks Domain

Alluvial Valleys and Intermontane Basins Domain

Alluvial Plains Domain

Regional Sedimentary Basins Domain

Groundwater resources understanding

Hard Rocks

Alluvial Valleys and Intermontane Basins

Alluvial Plains

Regional Sedimentary Basins

Current and future groundwater supplies

Groundwater Use and Future Demands

Hard Rocks

Alluvial Valleys and Intermontane Basins

Alluvial Plains

Regional Sedimentary Basins

 

HYDROGEOLOGY OF LARGE PLAINS

Hydrological Features of Large Plains

Surface Drainage Network

The Drainage Basin and Water Divides

The Water Budget

The Central Role of the Unsaturated Zone

Deep Infiltration or Recharge to Aquifers

Human-Linked Impacts on Water Resources

Summary of the Distinct Characteristics of Large Plains

The Southern Hemispheres Largest Plain: The Argentine Pampas

Generalities

Ecological Regionalization

Rainfall: Spatial Distribution and Interception

The Role of Topographical Depressions

Groundwater Recharge: The Unsaturated Zone

Water Quality and Quantity: Management Issues

 

THERMAL SPRINGS

Conceptual Models of Water Circulation

A Special Spring: The Geyser

Origin of Thermal Waters

Chemical Composition of Thermal Waters

Dissolution versus Deposition Processes

Chemical Features of Spring Waters in High-Temperature Environments

The Source of Chemical Species in Thermal Solutions

Estimation of Reservoir Temperature

Recognition of Mixed Waters

Age Dating of Hydrothermal Waters

Historical Aspects of Utilization of Thermal Springs

 

GROUNDWATER FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA

The porous medium. Water reservoirs

Basic principles of groundwater flow in porous media

Dynamics of fluids in porous media

Darcy’s law. Permeability

Darcy’s law limitations

Total and effective porosity

Water velocity

Recharge

Storativity

Flow equation

Continuity equation

Transient equation

Examples

Recent advances

 

GROUNDWATER FLOW THROUGH FRACTURED ROCKS

Barenblatt’s et al. mathematical model

Warren and Root solution to Barenblatt’s equations

Determination of the Parameters of Homogeneous Behavior

Inhomogeneous Fractured Formations of Double Porosity

Radial Flow through Inhomogeneous Formations

 

WATER BASIC CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES

Properties and structure of water

Expression of concentration units

Groundwater chemical composition

Principles and processes controlling water composition

Chemical equilibrium. The law of mass action

Acid-base equilibria

Redox processes

Ion exchange and adsorption

Sampling and analysis of groundwater samples

Groundwater and vadose zone sampling

Analysis of groundwater samples

Presentation of water quality data

Graphical methods

Statistical methods

Hydrochemical models

 

ADVECTION, DISPERSION, SORPTION, DEGRADATION, ATTENUATION

Advection

Concept of Macroscopic Groundwater Velocity

Advective Transport

Dispersion and Diffusion

Mechanical Dispersion

Molecular Diffusion

Hydrodynamic Dispersion

The Peclet Number

Experimental Determination of Dispersion Parameters

Dispersion in a Non-Ideal Geological Medium

Advection and Diffusion in Fractured Geological Media

Sorption

The Retardation Effect of Sorption

Experimental Determination of Sorption

Degradation and Attenuation

Basics of Degradation and Natural Attenuation

Biochemical Pathways for Degradation of Organic Compounds

 

ENVIRONMENTAL ISOTOPES IN GROUNDWATER STUDIES

Environmental Isotopes

Stable Isotopes

Radioactive Isotopes

Tritium

Radiocarbon (14C)

Applications in Groundwater Studies

Groundwater Recharge

Recharge from Precipitation

Recharge from Surface Water

Palaeorecharge

Groundwater Transit Time

Interconnections between Aquifers

Groundwater Salinization

Groundwater Pollution

General Remarks on Environmental Isotopes

 

SUBSURFACE HYDROBIOLOGY

Subsurface Environment

Microbiology

SedimentMicrobial Interactions

Flow Systems

Local Groundwater Flow Systems

Intermediate Groundwater Flow Systems

Regional Groundwater Flow Systems

Groundwater Contamination

Routes of Contamination

Factors Influencing Microbial Transport into the Subsurface

Microbial Pathogens in Groundwater

Technological Hurdles in Studying Subsurface Hydrobiology

 

REVIEW OF MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF FLOW AND CONTAMINANT TRANSPORT IN SATURATED POROUS MEDIA

Modeling Flow in a Three-Dimensional Domain

Conceptual Model

Mass Balance Equation

Initial and Boundary Conditions

Modeling Two-Dimensional Flow in Aquifer Domains

Aquifers and Essentially Horizontal Flow

Averaging over the Vertical

Averaged Aquifer Flow Equations

Conceptual Model

Flow equations

Initial and Boundary Conditions

Transport of a Single Contaminant

Fluxes

Advective Flux

Diffusive Flux

Hydrodynamic Dispersion

Dispersive Flux

Total Flux

Mass Balance Equation for a Contaminant

The General Equation

Pumping and Injection

Decay and other Degradation Phenomena

Adsorption

Mass Balance of a Component with Two-site Adsorption

Retardation

Mass Balance for a Volatile Component

Initial and Boundary Conditions

Modeling Flow and Solute Transport with Variable density

Constitutive Relations

Motion Equation

Mass Balance Equation for the Fluid

Fluxes and Mass Balance of Dissolved Matter

Initial and Boundary Conditions

 

TRANSPORT PHENOMENA AND VULNERABILITY OF THE UNSATURATED ZONE

Transport Processes

Soils and Geologic Porous Media

Describing Soils

Classifying Soils

Clays

Liquid Transport

Soil Moisture Characteristics

Darcy’s Law and Unsaturated Hydraulic Conductivity

Gas Transport

Heat Transport

Modes of Heat Transfer

Conduction of Heat in Soil

Solute Transport

Advection

Diffusion

Mechanical Dispersion

Total Mass Flux

Dominant Solute Transport Processes

Coupled Processes

Biogeochemical Processes

Impacts of Geologic Heterogeneity on Processes

Hydrologic Processes

Infiltration and Redistribution

RainfallRunoff

Groundwater Recharge

Contaminant Transport

Nutrient Cycling

Into the Twenty-First Century

 

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLID AND FLUID MATRICES

Solid Phase

Soil Composition

Soil Structure

Volume and Mass Relationships

Soil Water Interactions

Soil Mechanical Properties

Transport Properties

Solute Transport

Thermal Transport

Opportunities and Challenges

 

VOLUMETRIC WATER CONTENT MATRIC POTENTIAL RELATIONSHIPS

Concept of Capillarity

Matric Potential

Relations between Potentials on a Mass, Volume, and Weight Basis

Distribution of Potentials in the Liquid Phase for a Convex Gas Liquid Interface

Experimental Determinations

Methods

Parametric Models

Property-Transfer Models

Inverse Procedures

 

WATER AND SOLUTE TRANSPORT IN THE VADOSE ZONE

Obstacles to a Sustainable Future

Need for Interdisciplinarity

Analysis and Modeling Techniques

Understanding Multidimensional Variability Patterns

Arid and Semiarid Areas

Pollutant Transport

Scale Relationships

Global Change

Paths towards a Sustainable Future

Observational Facilities and Prediction Techniques

Research and Education

Managerial Aspects

 

BIODEGRADATION IN THE VADOSE ZONE

Vadose Zone

Definitions

Environmental Interest

Soil

Inorganic Components of Soil

Organic Matter in Soil

Role of Organic Matter

Humus

Composition of Soil Humic Substances

Biochemistry of Soil Humic Substances

Organic Matter Transformations and Cycles of Principal Elements

Carbon Cycle

Nitrogen Cycle

Phosphorus Cycle

Sulfur Cycle

Soil as Habitat for Microbial Life

Location of Biota in Soil Fractions and within the Soil Profile

Subsurface Microbial Ecology

Organisms

Actinomycetes and Fungi

Protozoa

Bacterial Metabolism

Function of Subsurface Organisms

Response to Environmental Changes

Metabolic Status of Subsurface Microorganisms

Enzyme Activity in Soil

Enzyme Classification

Hydrolases

Oxidoreductases

Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity

Biological Processes

Aerobic

Anaerobic

Biodegradation Processes

Biodegradability

Enzymatic Degradation

Microbial Degradation

Degradation Kinetics

Impact of Agricultural Practices on Subsurface Habitat

Changes in the Subsurface Environment

Wastes and Pollutants in Soil

HumusPollutant Relationship

Adsorption and Degradation of Pesticides

Biodegradation and the Rizosphere

Biodegradation of Organic Residues

Comparative Overview of Processes in Aerobic and Anaerobic Environments

Aerobic Environment: Groups and Functions of Biodegradation Enzymes

Hydrolases

Oxygen-Dependent Transformations

Anaerobic Environment

Cellulose and Lignin Degradation

Aromatics

Aliphatics

Biodegradation and Bioremediation

 

PROCESSES CAUSING ATTENUATION IN THE UNSATURATED AND SATURATED ZONE

Principles of the Vadose Zone’s Functioning

The Vadose Zone as a Natural Filter

Soil Components

Main Functions of the Soil

Structural Aspects of a Soil–Water–Plant System

Soil Water Characteristics

Matric and Osmotic Potentials

The Unsaturated Zone

Physical Aspects

Biological Aspects

The Saturated Zone

The Vulnerability of an Aquifer

Soil Filter

Attenuation Processes

Natural Attenuation

Assisted Attenuation

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)

Soil Factors Operating at the Vadose Zone

Soil Biotic Components Affecting Attenuation

Rhizosphere

Soil Macrofauna

Earthworms and Soil Physical Properties

Ants and Termites

Faunal Indicators of Soil Quality

Bacteria

Subsurface Biobarriers

Bacterial Sedimentation Through Porous Medium

Humic Substances

Humic–Enzyme Complexes

Humification Process and Attenuation

Microbia-Mediated Redox Processes

General Electron Acceptors

Iron and Manganese Redox Couples

Redox Conditions and Metal Toxicity Attenuation

Selenium

Chromium

Mercury

Microbial Reduction of Other Metals

Mobile Subsurface Colloids

Definition

Sources

In situ Mobilization

Colloidal Particle Precipitation

Biocolloids

Colloid Transport at Gas–Water Interface Unsaturated Porous Media

Organic Contaminants

Mobility of Organic Pollutants in the Subsurface

Volatilization from Soil to the Atmosphere

Surface-Applied Chemicals

Movement of Chemical Vapor Through Soil

Pesticides

Chlorinated Solvents

Biological Degradation of Chlorinated Solvents

Non-Aqueous Phase Liquids (NAPLs)

Organic Nutrients

Nitrogen

Phosphorous

Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC)

Reactivation of Pollutants Stabilized at the Vadose

Agriculture and Nutrients

Engineering Practices

 

GROUNDWATER VULNERABILITY IN DIFFERENT CLIMATIC ZONES

Concept of Groundwater Pollution Vulnerability

Aquifer Pollution Vulnerability in a Groundwater Protection Program

Groundwater Pollution Vulnerability in Different Climatic Conditions

Hydraulic Access to the Aquifer Saturated Zone

Contaminant Attenuation Processes

Methods for Groundwater Vulnerability Cartography

The Future of Groundwater Pollution Vulnerability Methods

 

ORGANIC COMPOUNDS IN THE VADOSE ZONE

Sources of Organic Pollutants

Rainwater and Stormwater Infiltration

Land Disposal of Organic Wastes

Abandoned Wells

Holding Ponds and Lagoons

Agricultural Activities

Underground Storage Tanks

Accidents and Illegal Dumping

Septic Systems

Major Categories of Organic Pollutants

Pesticides

The Most Frequently Detected Herbicides

Nitro Aromatic Munitions

Polychlorinated n-Alkanes (PCAs)

Chlorinated Solvents

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

Transport of Organic Pollutants in the Subsurface

Mobility of Immiscible Organic Compounds

Testing Groundwater Quality Through Volatile Organic Compounds

Tracers for Age-Dating of Groundwater

Tracers of Pollutant Attenuation at Vadose

Measures for Minimization of Pollutants

Indirect Measures

Buffer Zones

Sanitary Waste Management

Direct Measures

Dry Detention Basins

Rainwater Infiltration in Soil

Natural Organic Compounds in Soil

Source of Terrestrial Detritus

Composition and Role

Plant Cell Structure

Peats

Humus

Interactions between Natural Organic Compounds and Xenobiotics

Plant Residues as a Source of Organic Carbon

Co-metabolic Processes Leading to the Accumulation of Intermediate Products

Soil Composting

Ecotoxicological Approach to Evaluate the Effects of Organic Pollutants

 

GROUNDWATER DEVELOPMENT

Surveying

Factors Controlling Groundwater Occurrence

Productivity Indexes

Geologic indexes

Geomorphologic indexes

Climatic indexes

Hydrodynamic indexes

Geochemical indexes

Geologic and Geomorphologic Exploration

Types of aquifers

Karst aquifers

Hard rocks aquifers

Intergranular aquifers

Landscapes

Mountains

Plains and Flatlands

Small islands

Coastal zones, deltaic areas and wetlands

Hydrodynamic types of aquifers

Geophysical Methods

Tracer Hydrology

Geochemical Exploration

Pumping Tests

Speleological Exploration

Water demand assessment

Water offer

Water demand

Water quality

Wells and Trenches

Wells

Penetration depth

Drilling method

Casing or tubing

Well diameter

Well screen and filter pack

Well development

Yield capacity and well efficiency

Protection perimeters

Maintenance

Planning well drilling

Trenches and infiltration galleries

Design, operation and optimisation of groundwater monitoring networks

Geomathematical techniques

Methodology for the design of Hydrogeological Monitoring Networks

Optimization of Hydrogeological Monitoring Networks

Mathematical modeling

Prediction models

Identification models

Management models

Stages in mathematical modeling

Mathematical formulation

Flow models

Transport models

Special scenarios and forthcoming groundwater development

 

SURVEY METHODS

Surveying guidelines

Geology

Lithology

Tectonic structure

Stratigraphy and rock age

Geomorphology

Climate

Extreme climates

Tropical climates

Temperate climates

Hydrodynamics

Geochemistry

Geologic and geomorphologic exploration

Types of aquifers

Karst aquifers

Hard rocks aquifers

Intergranular aquifers

Landscapes

Mountains

Plains and Flatlands

Hydrodynamic types of aquifers

Geophysical methods

Tracer hydrology

Types of tracers

Suspended solids 

Soluble chemicals   

Dyes 

Environmental isotopes

Geochemical exploration

Pumping tests

Planning

Well hydraulics

Steady state equations

Unsteady, transient, conditions

Recovery tests

Leaky aquifers

Time

Steady state drawdown

Hantush solution

Delayed yield solutions

Double porosity models

Solutions for turbulent, non-linear flows

 

GROUNDWATER MONITORING NETWORKS

Types of Groundwater Monitoring Networks

Diffuse-source Water Quality Networks

Point-Source (Contaminated Site) Water Quality Networks

Groundwater Resource (Groundwater Level) Networks

Scale of Monitoring Networks

Local-Scale Networks

Regional-Scale Networks

National-Scale Networks

Planning and Design of Networks

Minimum Requirements for Well Construction

Density of Wells in a Network

Sampling Frequency of Networks

Sustainability of Groundwater Monitoring Networks

 

COASTAL AQUIFER DEVELOPMENT

Land Subsidence

Seawater Intrusion

Nature of the Problem

Geochemical Analysis of Saline Water in an Aquifer

Quantitative Evaluation of Saltwater Behavior

Experimental Observation of Saltwater Movement

Ghyben-Herzberg’s Law

Mathematical Tools for Predicting Seawater Intrusion

Groundwater Development in Coastal Aquifers

Subsurface Dams and an Extraction Well with Radial Collecting Pipes to Increase the Use of Coastal Groundwater

A Desalination Plant for Salt-Contaminated Groundwater

Utilization of Saline Water in Coastal Aquifers

Desalination of Saline Water Taken From Coastal Aquifers

Fish Breeding

 

GROUNDWATER DEVELOPMENT IN HARD ROCKS

Occurrence of Groundwater

Groundwater Development

Types of Well

Drinking Water Supply

Exploration

Recharge Augmentation

Sustainability and Pumpage Control

 

GROUNDWATER USE AS POTABLE WATER SUPPLY

Water for Drinkable Use

Water Supply Withdraw and Conveyance in the Centuries

Water Requirements for Drinkable Use

Planning and Management of Groundwater Allocated for Human Use

Quality and Vulnerability of Groundwater Designed for Drinkable Use

Quality of Drinking Waters

Pollution Processes of Drinkable Waters

Vulnerability of Groundwater for Drinkable Use

Withdrawal Works of Groundwater for Drinkable Use

Withdrawal Works

Springs Withdrawal

Wells Withdrawal

Infiltration Galleries Withdrawal

 

GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION, PROTECTION AND REMEDIATION.

The concept of groundwater quality.

Contamination of the subterranean waters.

Contamination classification systems.

Principal groundwater contaminant types and processes.

The role of the unsaturated zone in the behaviour of the polluting agents.

Groundwater prevention and protection.

Quality and Quantity Protection Measures.

The Concept Of Vulnerability Of The Aquifers.           

The Protection of Groundwater Wells.

The development of protection perimeters around wells.

Protection of Recharge and Unsaturated Zone of the Aquifers.

The Establishment Of Systems Of Prevention And Control Of Groundwater Quality.

The remediation aquifer technologies

 

ARTIFICIAL GROUNDWATER RECHARGE

Artificial Groundwater Recharge (AGR)

Influence of Recharge Factors

Geological Factors

Hydrogeologic Factors

PhysicalChemical Factors

Physical Characteristics

Chemical Characteristics

Groundwater Recharge Precautions

Methods of Artificial Recharge

Choice of Recharge Method

Treatment of Water for Recharge

Indirect Artificial Recharge (IAR)

Basins

Channels

Ditches

Holes

Floods

Direct Artificial Recharge (DAR)

Water Recharge Wells

Mixed Systems of Water Recharge

Evaluation of Aquifer Recharge Area by Piezometric Map Analysis

Advantages and Disadvantages of Artificial Groundwater Recharge

Advantages

Disadvantages

 

GROUNDWATER RECHARGE AND DISCHARGE

Overview of Groundwater Recharge and Discharge

Recharge, Discharge, and the Hydrological Cycle

Recharge and Discharge in Unconfined and Confined Aquifers

Unconfined (Surficial) Aquifers

Confined Aquifers

Effects of Climate on Recharge

Paleorecharge

Summary of Principal Factors Affecting Recharge

Artificial Recharge

Overview

Summary of Methods

Geological and Hydrological Considerations

Physical Methods for Quantifying Recharge Rates

Water-Balance Methods

Physical and Geophysical Methods of Measuring Recharge

Chemical and Isotopic Methods for Quantifying Recharge Rates and Identifying Recharge Areas

Chloride-Mass Balance Method

Stable Isotopes

Radioactive Isotopes

Tritium and Chloride-36

TritiumHelium Method

Carbon-14

Calculating Recharge and Discharge Rates Using Analytical Expressions, Groundwater Flow Models, and Flow Nets

Natural Discharge

Discharge to Springs

Types of Springs

Groundwater Discharge to Lakes or Playas

Discharge to Streams

Groundwater Discharge to Wells and Galleries

Wells

Galleries

Groundwater Overdraft

Future Concerns and Directions

 

GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT: AN OVERVIEW OF HYDRO-GEOLOGY, ECONOMIC VALUES AND PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT

Groundwater: Hydro-Geology

Unconfined and confined aquifers

Conjoined surface and groundwater

Composition and Physical Characteristics

The value