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THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
Composition
of the Hydrosphere
Distribution of Water
Water in Oceans and Seas
Subsurface Water
Ice, Glaciers, Permanent Snow
Cover
Subsurface Ice in Permafrost
Zone
Water in Lakes and Reservoirs
Water in River Channels
Water in Swamps
Soil Moisture
Water in the Atmosphere
Biological Water
Schematic
Diagram of the Hydrological
Cycle
Water
Exchange in Nature
Water Exchange between Ocean and
Atmosphere: Precipitation and
Evaporation from Water Surface
Water Exchange between Land and
Atmosphere; Precipitation and
Evaporation from Land
Water Exchange between Land and
Ocean; River Runoff
Surface and Subsurface Water
Interaction
On Man’s
Activity Effects on the
Hydrological Cycle
Transformation of Vegetation
Cover and Earth's Surface
Forest and Forestry Effects
Land Plowing, Agricultural
Practices, Use of Meadows as
Pastures
Urbanization
Reservoirs and Hydromelioration
Practices
Freshwater Use
Man's Impact on Climate by
Changing Atmospheric
Characteristics
Possible Climate Change due to
Evaporation Increase
Climate Change Resulted from
Changes in the Composition of
the Atmosphere
World Water
Balance
EXCHANGES OF WATER IN THE
HYDROSPHERE
General information and
classification of waters of
hydrosphere
The notion of hydrosphere
Model of global hydrosphere
reserves
General classification of
hydrosphere waters
Water exchange and water balance
of ocean
Circulation of ocean waters
Ocean water balance and its
interconnection with salt
balance
Moisture exchange in the
ocean-atmosphere system
General circulation of
atmosphere and horizontal
moisture transfer
Water exchange between reserves
Level of
World Ocean as an integral
indicator of global water
exchange
Variations of water storage in
individual reserves
Modern variations of sea level
and climate
Prospects for further
investigations
TRANSFER OF ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE
Methodology for determination of
horizontal moisture transfer
components
On interpreting advective and
eddy flows of moisture
Factors for water vapor flow
formation
Circulation factors for moisture
transfer formation
Atmospheric moisture content
Distribution of moisture flows
over the earth globe
Geographical features of
distribution of moisture flows
Regularities of distribution of
zone average water vapor flows
Peculiarities of global-scale
moisture transfer
Atmospheric moisture transfer
over equator
Peculiarities of atmospheric
moisture transfer in polar areas
Moisture transfer in the
northern polar area
Moisture transfer in the
southern polar area
Prospects for further
investigations
WATER EXCHANGE BETWEEN LAND AND
ATMOSPHERE
Interrelation of moisture
exchange processes in the
atmosphere – land system
Equation of relation between
atmospheric water balances and
land surface
General information about
moisture rotation in the
atmosphere
The basics of the semi-empirical
theory of moisture circulation
Moisture rotation over
continents
Land surface humidification
Evaporating capacity as a factor
of humidification
Humidification characteristics
of various territories of the
terrestrial globe
Prospects for further
investigations
WATER EXCHANGE BETWEEN LAND AND
OCEANS
Global water exchange
Fresh water balance of the ocean
and assessment of its accuracy
Efficient evaporation
Fresh water inflow and its role
in water balance of oceans
Meridional fresh water flow in
the
World Ocean
Regional aspects of water
exchange
Caspian Sea level as an integral
indicator of moisture exchange
in the system ocean-land
Influence of fresh water inflow
on the range of ice cover of the
Arctic Ocean
Prospects for further
investigations
SURFACE AND GROUND WATER
INTERACTION
Typical schemes of surface and
ground water interaction
Schemes of forming recharge of
ground water
Scheme of groundwater discharge
formation
Function of the river bed
resistance to surface and ground
water interaction
Groundwater flow under a river
bed
Surface and groundwater
interaction in areas with
different natural conditions
Plains and other relatively flat
land
Mountain-folded areas
Permafrost zone
The role of groundwater function
in the water balance of the land
Groundwater interaction with
seas and big lakes
The impact of human activities
on surface and ground water
formation
HYDROSPHERE STRUCTURE AND ITS
RELATIONSHIP TO THE GLOBAL
HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
Components of the hydrosphere
Oceans and seas
Subsurface water
Snow and ice storage
"Minor" components of the hydrosphere
Lakes
Swamps
Soil moisture
Rivers
Water vapor in the atmosphere
Role of individual components of
the hydrosphere in the global
hydrological cycle
ENERGY BALANCE AND THE ROLES OF
THE SUN EARTH OCEANS AND
ATMOSPHERE
Solar radiation
Solar constant
Direct and scattered radiation
Outgoing (long-wave) radiation
The radiation balance
The heat balance
The heat balance at the Earths
surface
Heat balance of the
earth-atmosphere system
Distribution of the energy
(heat) balance components
Heat balance of the Earth and
climate change
HYDROLOGICAL REGIONS AND WATER
BALANCE
World Ocean and Continents of
the Earth
Principles of hydrological
regionalisation
General
Physiographic zones; Water
balance
Basin and zonal principles
Principle of the leading factor
Other methodological approaches
to regionalisation of
territories
Multipurpose hydrological
regionalization
ANTHROPOGENIC EFFECTS ON THE
HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
On possible Change in
Hydrological Cycle Components
Classification of Mans Activity
Factors
Transformation of the Plant
Cover and Earths Surface
Forest and Forestry Effects
Land Ploughing, Agricultural
Practices, Use of Meadows as
Pastures
Urbanization
Reservoirs and Hydromelioration
Practices
Brief Conclusions on the Effect
of the Earths Surface Change on
the Hydrological Cycle
Freshwater Use
Mans Impact on Climate by
Changing Atmospheric
Characteristics
Possible Climate Change due to
Evaporation Increase
Climate Change Resulted from
Changes in the Composition of
the Atmosphere
Anthropogenic Changes in the
Composition of the Atmosphere
On Changes in Global Air
Temperature and Precipitation
Expected Future Change in
Climate Characteristics and
Possible Results
OCEAN-LAND INTERACTION IN
COASTAL ZONES AND EFFECT OF
OCEAN-LEVEL CHANGE
Classification of the
interaction processes between
sea and river water
Classification of ocean-level
oscillations
Short-term level oscillations
Level oscillations induced by
astronomical forces: tides
Level oscillations induced by
atmospheric effects: storm
surges
Level oscillations induced by
tectonic factors: tsunamis
Local level oscillations related
to vertical movements of coastal
areas
Principal directions of further
research
WORLD WATER BALANCE
Water Balance Equations
Methods for Water Balance
Components Computation
Water Balance of Land
Fresh Water Balance of Oceans
Global Water Balance
ATMOSPHERIC PRECIPITATION OF THE
EARTH
Atmospheric precipitation over
oceans
Atmospheric precipitation distribution over the World Ocean
aquatory
Seasonal distribution of atmospheric precipitation
Atmospheric precipitation on the
continents and islands
Atmospheric precipitation distribution on the territory
Europe
Asia
Africa
North America
South America
Australia and Oceania
Antarctica
Annual distribution of atmospheric precipitation
Europe
Asia
Africa
North America
South America
Australia and Oceania
Antarctica
EVAPORATION FROM THE SURFACE OF
THE GLOBE
Evaporation from the surface of
the World Ocean.
Method for evaporation calculation
Distribution of evaporation from the water area of the World Ocean
Distribution of evaporation from the surface of the World Ocean
during a year
Evaporation from land.
Method for evaporation calculation
Distribution of evaporation from continents
Europe
Asia
Africa
North America
South America
Australia and Oceamia
Antarctica
Distribution of evaporation from land during a year
Europe
Asia
Africa
North America
South America
Australia and Oceania
Antarctica
RIVER RUNOFF TO OCEANS AND LAKES
Basic Data and Methodological
Approaches
Dynamics of River Water
Inflow to Oceans from Continents
Europe
North and Central America
Africa
Asia
South America
Australia and Oceania
Antarctica
Dynamics of Freshwater Inflow to
the World Ocean
Fresh Water Inflow to Endorheic
Seas and Lakes
Caspian Sea
Aral Sea
GROUNDWATER DISCHARGE INTO THE
WORLD OCEAN
Present-day concept of
groundwater discharge into seas
and oceans
Main notions and definitions
Methods for studying and
assessing groundwater discharge
into the sea
Quantitative assessing of
groundwater discharge into the
World Ocean
EVAPORATION
Background
Instruments and Methods to
estimate natural evaporation
Instruments for evaporation measurements
Design methods for evaporation measurements based on the account
of heat exchange in the
lower air layer and turbulent
diffusion of water vapour
Water balance method
Empirical methods for estimation of evaporation from natural
surfaces
Complex schemes for evaporation computation
Transpiration
EVAPORATION FROM LAND,
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
Experimental methods for
determining evaporation from
land
Comparative assessment of
contemporary experimental
Methods for determining
evaporation from land
Design methods for determining
evaporation from land
Comparative assessment of design
Methods for computation of
evaporation from land
EVAPORATION FROM OPEN WATER
SURFACE AND GROUNDWATER
Evaporation from free water
surface
Brief historical survey
Instruments to study evaporation from water surface
Methods for evaporation measurements from open water surface
Method of pans
Energy balance method
Aerodynamic method
Computation of evaporation from empirical formulas
Evaporation from water surface in different physiographic features
Ground water evaporation
TRANSPIRATION
Cuticular transpiration
Stoma opening and transpiration
Transpiration measurements
Transpiration rate
Seasonal variability
Daily variations
Transpiration control
Evapotranspiration
PRECIPITATION
Spatial distribution of
precipitation field
Measurement of precipitation
Precipitation process
Precipitation types
Snowfall and snow cover
Precipitation in changing
climate
Artificial Precipitation
FORMATION OF PRECIPITATION
Basic information about
precipitation
Relationship between
precipitation and clouds
Dynamic factors of precipitation
formation
Equations vapour and heat fluxes
of water
Role of vertical motions in
precipitation formation
Thermal stability in the cloud
and the type of precipitation
The role of the entrainment of
the ambient air into the cloud
Comparison of observations and
theory
Formation of precipitation in
cyclones and troughs
Spatial and temporary variations
in the cloud and precipitation
amount
Synoptic vortexes and
precipitation
Role of baroclinicity in vortex
formation
Seasonal and annual
precipitation variations
The relationship between
precipitation and the
temperature and pressure fields
Microphysical processes of
precipitation formation
Condensation and sublimation of
water vapour
Coagulation of cloud particles
TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF
PRECIPITATION
Precipitation forms
Liquid Precipitation
Rain, Drizzle and Freezing rain
Ground Liquid Precipitation (Dew
and Liquid Deposit)
Solid Precipitation
Snow
Hail, Snow Pellet, Ice Pellet,
Snow Corns, Ice Needles
Solid ground precipitation
(ground hydrometeors)
Characteristics of precipitation
regime
Total Precipitation Variability
Duration and Rate of
Precipitation.
Classification of precipitation
types by annual and daily
variations
Classification of Precipitation
by the Type of Annual Course
The equatorial type of annual
precipitation course
Tropical type
Mediterranean type
Continental type of the middle
latitudes
Marine type of the middle
latitudes
Monsoon type
The polar type
Classification of precipitation
by the type of daily variations
Continental type
Coastal type
Classification of precipitation
by genesis
Frontal (cyclones) precipitation
Orographic precipitation
Convective precipitation
Monsoon precipitation
THE EXTREME PRECIPITATION
Statistic characteristics
Absolute maximum of intensity
and amount of precipitation
Maximum duration of
precipitation
Precipitation of extreme
intensity
Hurricanes
Basic information
Inflows of heat and water vapour
into a hurricane from the ocean
Advective inflow of cold air
into a hurricane
Amount of precipitation in a
hurricane
Spouts
Dust storms
Monsoons precipitation
Frontal precipitation
SNOW AND ITS DISTRIBUTION
Methods of the snow survey
Global scale distribution
Mountainous area
Landscape zones
Spatial distribution at a local
scale
The informative-mapping analysis
Snow under forest canopy
Metamorphism of the snow
crystals
Snow melting
Impact on business areas
Snow management
Purposes of the future
investigations
ARTIFICIAL RAINFALL
History
Scientific Basis
Hygroscopic Seeding
Glaciogenic Seeding
Operational precipitation
enhancement projects
Seeding modes
SURFACE WATER RUNOFF
The Nature of the Phenomenon
Hydrological cycle
Runoff Generation process
River basin
River Feeding Kinds
Soil waters and evaporation
Underground waters and
underground inflow to rivers
Indestructibility laws and water
balance
Regime, hydrographs and
characteristics of runoff
Spatial aspects of Runoff
Generation
Water movement in channel system
The accompanying phenomena
Surface Runoff on the Earth
Runoff and Human Being
System of observations
Using of runoff and the problem
of water resources
Anthropogenic Effects on Runoff
Surface Runoff Science
The Basic Conceptions of
Hydrology and Runoff Study
The basic research aspects in
the Field of Study of Runoff
The Future of Study of Runoff
RUNOFF GENERATION AND STORAGE IN
WATERSHED
Processes and Phenomena on the
Watershed Surface
Precipitation
Thermal Energy Exchange of the
Basin Surface with the
Atmosphere and Outer Space
Precipitation Interception by
Vegetation Cover
Snow Cover Formation
Snowmelt and Snow Cover
Destruction
Water Yield from Snow
Infiltration and Surface Runoff
Generation
Depression Storage
Processes and Phenomena in Soil
or Near-Surface Rock Layer
Thermaland Water-Physical
Properties of Soils and Rocks
Thermal Energy Dynamics
Dynamics of Soil Waters
Evaporation
Runoff Transformation in Runoff
Elements
Channel Runoff Transformation
The Relationship of Runoff and
Storage in Watershed
The Runoff Generation Problem
and Experimental Hydrology
Landscape is a Runoff Producing
Complex and the Intersection of
Science
The Peculiarities of Runoff
Generation Conditions in Various
Geographical Zones
SPACE CHARACTERS OF RUNOFF
FORMATION
Principal classifications of
river runoff formation and their
space presentation
Methods for description of space
runoff features and factors
Basic Methods for Runoff
Characteristics and Factors
Presentation in the Geographic
Space
Basic Types of Models for a
Description of Space Fields of
Runoff Characteristics and
Factors
Methods for Deterministic Space
Models Preparation
Polynomial Interpolation
Linear Interpolation
Cubic and Bi-cubic Interpolation
Pointwise Interpolation and
Windows
Methods for
Deterministic-Stochastic Space
Models Preparation
Validation
Space Correlation Functions
Space-Time Models of Runoff
Fields and Factors
Plotting of Regional Dependences
in Homogeneous Regions
Principal Types of Dependences
Dependences of Runoff Formation
for Each Watershed
Common Areal Dependences of
Parameters of Mean Annual Runoff
Distribution
New information types as a
perspective for estimating space
specific features of runoff
formation.
Remote Sensing Data and
Electronic Maps
Basic
Space River Runoff
Characteristics and Factors
Determined on the Basis of
Remote Sensing Data
GIS as a perspective system to
study space specific features of
runoff characteristics.
HYDROLOGY OF SLOPING TERRAIN
The Peculiarities of Runoff
Formation in Mountain Conditions
Spatial Interpolation of
Meteorological Elements
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