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-Radiation
Nuclear
Fission
Nuclear
Energy
Nuclear Reactors
Research
Reactors
Production
Reactors
Power
Reactors
Scientific Recognition
Key
Researchers
Significant
Achievements
Niels Bohr
James
Chadwick
Enrico
Fermi
Nobel
Prizes
Nuclear Reactor Development
New
Technology
First Chain
Reaction
Atomic
Bombs
Power
Producing Reactors
Nuclear Reactor Accidents
Lessons
from Accidents
The Oklo
Phenomenon
Three Mile Island Accident
Chernobyl Accident
Basic Nuclear Physics
Atomic
Components
Atomic Mass
and Energy
Atomic
Structure
Radioactive
Processes
Binding
Energy
Neutron Characteristics
Neutron
Production
Neutron
Flux and Energy
Nuclear
Cross Sections
Reaction
Rate
Cross
Section Variation
Energy
Release
Fission
Characteristics
Delayed
Neutrons
Fission
Process Summary
Basic Reactor Theory
Basic
Concepts
Fission
Chain Reaction
Basic
Reactor Core Design
Neutron
Multiplication Factor
Reactor
Size and Shape
Neutron Flux Variation
Reactor
Power
Nuclear Reactor Operation
Neutron
Lifetime
Source
Multiplication
Approach to
Critical
Effect on
Reactor Operation
Fuel Burnup
NUCLEAR
PHYSICS
Fundamental Concepts
Atomic Components
Atomic Notation
Atomic Mass Scale
Mass-Energy Equivalence
Avogadro's Number
Atomic Structure
Atomic Dimensions
Energy Levels
Nuclear Structure
Radioactivity
Radioactive Processes
Alpha Decay
Negative Beta Decay
Positive Beta Decay
Electron Capture
Proton Emission
Neutron Emission
Neutron Decay
Radioactive Decay
Radioactive Chain
Radioactive Build-up (Neutron Activation)
Build-up and Decay
Binding Energy
Definition of Binding Energy
Plot of Binding Energy
NUCLEAR
INTERACTIONS
Neutron Interactions
Neutron Production
Elastic Scattering (Elastic Collision)
Inelastic Scattering (Inelastic Collision)
Radiative Capture
Nuclear Transmutation (Charged Particle Reaction)
Neutron Producing Reaction
Fission
Neutron Flux
Neutron Energy
Nuclear Cross Sections
Microscopic Cross Sections
Macroscopic Cross Sections
Number of Nuclei
Reaction Rate
Summary
Macroscopic cross-section
Neutron Flux
Reaction Rate
Neutron Scattering and Capture
Neutron Attenuation
Mean Free Path
Scattering Characteristics
Absorption Characteristics
Radiative Capture Model
Cross Sections
Neutron Moderation
Neutron Energy Changes
Logarithmic Mean Energy Decrement
Definitions
Mean Logarithmic Energy Decrement ξ
Macroscopic Scattering Cross Section Σs
Slowing Down Power
Moderating Ratio
Fission and Fusion
Energy Release
Fission
Fission Characteristics
Fission Products
Neutron Energy Spectrum
Delayed Neutrons
Fission Process Summary
Charged Particles
NUCLEAR
REACTOR THEORY
Neutron Diffusion Characteristics
Basic Concepts
Fick's Law
Neutron Diffusion Equation
Neutron Balance
Boundary Conditions
Neutron Flux Variation
Infinite Planar Source
Point Source
Diffusion Length
One Group Reactor Equation
Development of Diffusion Equation
One Group Critical Equation
Reactor Equation Applications
Basic Application of Equation
Infinite Slab Reactor
Reactor Equation Solutions
Rectangular Reactor
Cylindrical Reactor
Spherical Reactor
Neutron Flux and Power
Neutron Flux Variation
Spherical Reactor
Maximum to Average Flux
Rectangular Reactor
Cylindrical Reactor
Spherical Reactor
NUCLEAR REACTOR DESIGN
Basic Principles
Fission Chain Reaction
Neutron Absorption Characteristics
Heat Removal
Basic Reactor Core Design
Basic Theory
Neutron Diffusion Equation
One Group Reactor Equation
Reactor Design Considerations
Neutron Energy Production
Group Diffusion Method
Two Group Calculations
Fast Fission and Resonance Absorption
Neutron Multiplication Factor
The Four Factor Formula
The Six Factor Formula
Neutron Cycle
Neutron Leakage
Reactor Shapes
Surface Effects
Reactor Reflectors
Neutron Flux
Output Enhancement
Reactor Power
Flux Flattening
Flux Flattening in PWRs
Reflector
Fuel Loading and Management
Flux Flattening in CANDU reactors
Reflector
Adjuster Rods
Bi-directional Fuelling
Differential Fuel Burnup
Reactor Configuration
Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Arrangements
Effect of Fuel Rods
Effect of Control Rods
Chemical Shim
NUCLEAR
REACTOR KINETICS
Reactor Kinetics
Introduction
Neutron Lifetime
Reactor Power
Basic Reactor Kinetics
Reactor Period
Doubling Time
Reactor Kinetics with Delayed Neutrons
Reactor Kinetics Numerical Model
Negative Reactivity
Reactor Operation
Shutdown Conditions
Spontaneous Fission
Decay of Delayed Neutron Precursors
Photo-neutron Emission
Source Multiplication
Rate Log Power
Power Transients
Decay Heat
Critical Conditions
General Considerations
First Chain Reaction
Atomic Bombs
Power Producing Reactors
Approach to Critical
Nuclear Reactor Startup
Reactivity Changes and Power Measurement
Approach to Criticality
REACTIVITY
CHANGES
Fission Product Effects
Magnitude of Effects
Xenon Transients
Xenon Reactivity Transients
Xenon Oscillations
Samarium Build-Up
Fuel Effects
Fuel Burnup
Temperature Effects
Coefficients of Reactivity
Doppler Broadening
Neutron Spectrum Hardening
Density Change
Void Formation
Reactivity Changes
Power Coefficient
NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS
Reactor Types
Reactor Development
Commercial Reactors in Service
Representative Reactors
Design Considerations
Reactor Size
Reactor Core Design
Turbine Generator Design
Operational Constraints
Grid System Requirements
Construction Duration
Thermodynamic Cycle
Carnot Cycle
Rankine Cycle
Brayton Cycle
General Principles
Nuclear Principles
Fission Energy
Nuclear Reactor Principles
Fuel Burnup
Safety and Licensing
Radiation Hazards
Risk Assessment
Licensing Principles
Nuclear Fuel
Fuel Characteristics
Nuclear Waste
Fuel Utilization
Environmental Aspects
Uranium Mining
Nuclear Plant Effluents
Thermal Discharge
Carbon Dioxide Emissions
Nuclear Fuel
New Developments
General Direction
Current New Developments
European Pressurized Water Reactor (EPR)
Advanced Passive Pressurized Water Reactors (AP 600 and AP
1000)
System 80+ Pressurized Water Reactor
Advanced Pressurized Water Reactor (APWR)
Advanced Boiling Water Reactor (ABWR)
The Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor (ESBWR)
The Advanced CANDU Reactor (ACR)
The mPower Reactor
Long Term New Developments
The Iris Reactor
The NuScale Reactor
The Pebble Bed Modular Reactor PBMR
The Gas Turbine Modular Helium Reactor (GT-MHR)
The Antares High Temperature Reactor (HTR)
New Small Portable Reactors
The Hyperion Power Module
The Super-Safe Small and Simple (4S) Reactor
Nuclear Fusion
Fusion Energy
Theoretical Aspects
Reactor Structure
The International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER)
EXERGY,
ENERGY SYSTEM ANALYSIS, AND OPTIMIZATION
Historical Evolution of Exergy Analysis
The Early Years (1824 - 1900)
The Period of Development (1930 - 1980)
The Concepts of Exergy and Irreversibility
Thermoeconomics in the Design and Operation of Energy Systems
Optimization in Energy Systems
Definition of Optimization
The Need for Optimization
A Brief Historical Overview
Development of Optimization Techniques
Introduction of Optimization to Energy Systems
Formulation of the Optimization Problem
Mathematical Statement of the Optimization Problem
Objective Functions
Independent Variables
Equality and Inequality Constraints
Levels of Optimization of Energy Systems
Methods for Solution of the Optimization Problem
Application of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems in
Energy Systems Design
Design, Knowledge, and Artificial Intelligence
Definition of Artificial Intelligence
Expert Systems
Energy Systems and Sustainability
The General Social Framework
Sustainability Considerations in Energy Systems Analysis
Global Implications of the Second Law of Thermodynamics
Future Work
EXERGY
AND THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS
Exergy
Performance Evaluation with the Aid of Exergetic Variables
Exergy
Destruction
Exergy Loss
Exergetic
Efficiency
Exergy
Destruction Ratio and Exergy Loss Ratio
Comprehensive Thermodynamic Analysis
Closure
BASIC
EXERGY CONCEPTS
Energy and Exergy
Reference Environment and Exergy Components
Reference States and Chemical Exergy
Calculation of Chemical Exergy Values
EXERGY
BALANCE AND EXERGETIC EFFICIENCY
Exergy Balance and Exergy Destruction
Closed System Exergy Balance
Control Volume Exergy Balance
Thermodynamic Inefficiencies
Exergy Destruction Associated With Heat Transfer
Exergy Destruction Associated With Friction
Avoidable and Unavoidable Exergy Destruction
Endogenous and Exogenous Exergy Destruction
Guidelines for improving the Use of Energy Resources
Exergetic Variables
Exergetic Efficiency
Exergy Destruction and Exergy Loss
Exergy Destruction Ratio
EXERGY
ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE PROCESSES
Thermodynamic Analysis of Single
Components
Chemical Reactors
Combustion Chamber
Gasifier
Steam Reformer
Heat Exchangers
Turbomachines
Compressor, Pump, or Fan
Turbine (Expander)
Dissipative Components
Evaluation
Thermodynamic Analysis of Simple
Processes
Steam Generator
Simple Cogeneration System
STRENGTHS
AND LIMITATIONS OF EXERGY ANALYSIS
Evaluation
Exergetic variables
Interpretation of the results of an exergy analysis
Optimization
Process development
ENERGETIC
AND EXERGETIC ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SYSTEMS
Steam Power Plant
Process Description
Energy Analysis
Exergy Analysis
Discussion and Conclusions
Combined-Cycle Power Plant
Process Description
Energy Analysis
Exergy Analysis
Discussion and Conclusions
Externally-Fired Combined-Cycle Power Plant
Process description
Exergy Analysis
Results and Discussion
GRAPHIC
EXERGY ANALYSIS
A New Approach to Thermodynamics
The Hierarchical Nature of Thermodynamics
Three Kinds of Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics of a Substance
Thermodynamics of a Process
Thermodynamics of a System
Characteristic Features of Intermediary Energy
Graphic Applications of Thermodynamic Compass
Introduction to Thermodynamic Compass
Classification of Processes on the Compass
Representation of Exergy Loss on Thermodynamic Compass
Application to Thermodynamics of Processes
Application of an Energy-Utilization Diagram (EUD)
Model System
The Second Law and Exergy Loss Analysis
The Second Law and Energy-Loss Analysis from the Viewpoint of
the Energy-Utilization Diagram
Presentation of the Whole System
PINCH
ANALYSIS
Energy-Capital Trade-off for Heat Recovery by a Heat
Exchanger
Defining the Minimum Energy Requirement of a Process
The Composite Curves
The Pinch Point
The Heat Cascade
The Problem Table Method
The Grand Composite Curve
Consequences of the Pinch Point Location
Heat Sink and Heat Source
The More In, The More Out
Penalizing Heat Exchangers
Exchangers using Hot Utility below the Pinch Point
Exchangers using Cold Utility above the Pinch Point
Exchangers that do exchange heat across the pinch point
Utility Integration
Targeting the Investment
The Minimum Number of Connections Target
Total Area Target
Capital Cost Estimation
Optimal DTmin Value
Physical Meaning of the DTmin
Summary of the Targeting Method
Heat Exchanger Network (HEN) Design
Representing a Heat Exchanger Network
The HEN Design Target
The Pinch Design Method
Feasibility Rules
Number of Streams Rule
The cp Rule
Heuristic Rules
Tick-off Rule
Remaining Problem Analysis
Driving Force Plot and Splitting Factors
Other Heuristics
A Synthesis Method.
Mathematical Programming Approach
Heat Load Distribution
Optimizing the Heat Exchanger Network Design
Loops and Path for Reducing the Number of Heat
Exchangers
Using Mixed Integer Non Linear Programming Methods
Final Remarks Concerning the Heat Exchanger Network
Design
Process Integration and Improvement
Pinch Analysis and Process Improvement
Integration of Heat Pumps
Mechanical Compression Cycle Heat Pumps
Other Types of Heat Pumps
Utility Integration
Using the Grand Composite Curve
Combining Pinch Analysis and Exergy Concepts
Methodology for Designing Integrated Utility Systems
Using the Exergy Depletion as the Objective Function
Representing the Integration of the Utility System
Final Remarks Concerning the Process Optimization and the
Utility System Integration
THERMOECONOMIC ANALYSIS
An historical
overview
What is the
Exergy Cost?
Cost Accounting
The process
of cost formation
The principle of non equivalence of the irreversibilities
Thermoeconomic
Diagnosis
Thermoeconomic
Optimization
Final
reflections and conclusions
THE
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESS OF COST FORMATION
Definitions and concepts
Cost accounting and the exergy cost theory
Calculation of average exergy costs
Calculation of exergoeconomic costs
External assessment and additional concepts
Exergy amortization
Residues
Assessment of the plant fuels
Cumulative exergy cost or ecological cost
On the nature of costs
Linearity of costs
The process of cost formation
Closure
SYMBOLIC
THERMOECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF ENERGY SYSTEMS
The Fuel-Product Model
Cost Model Equations
The FP Representation
Distribution Ratios
Cost and Efficiency Formulae
Irreversibility and Cost
Exergoeconomic Cost
The PF Representation
Junction Ratios
Unit Exergy Consumption
Cost Equations
The FP and PF Relationships
Impact on Resources Consumption
Closure
STRUCTURAL
THEORY OF THERMOECONOMICS
Marginal costs
Characteristic equations
General equation of marginal cost
Generalized fuel impact
Lagrange multipliers and marginal costs
Structural Theory of Thermoeconomics
Linear model of characteristic equations
Average and marginal costs
Structural Theory as Standard for Thermoeconomics
Structural Theory and Exergy Cost Theory
Structural Theory and the Fuel Product model
Structural Theory and Thermoeconomic Functional Analysis
Applications
Local optimization
Closure
FUNCTIONAL
ANALYSIS
Concepts and Definitions
The Functional Diagram of a System
Functional Analysis of a System
Identification of the Functions
Drawing the Functional Diagram of the System
Economic Functional Analysis
Functional Optimization
Closure
COST
FUNCTIONS OF COMPONENTS FOR OPTIMAL SYSTEM DESIGN
A scenario of interdisciplinary communication
The Objective Function
Interdisciplinary Communication
The concept of costing equations.
The matrix of information exchange for a device
An application example to a heat exchange device.
Alternative communication scenarios and applications.
The Costing Of the Same Heat Exchange Device By Selection
The Off-Design Performance of the Super-heater
Concluding remarks
Appendix
APPLICATION
OF THERMOECONOMICS TO OPERATION DIAGNOSIS OF ENERGY PLANTS
Thermo economic Operation Diagnosis
Malfunction and Dysfunction Analysis
Malfunction Causes Analysis
APPLICATION OF THERMOECONOMICS TO THE DESIGN AND
SYNTHESIS OF ENERGY
PLANTS
Principles of exergoeconomics applied to design optimization
Exergy
Costing
Exergy
Destruction Reduces Investment Cost
Cost balances and auxiliary equations
Optimization with exergoeconomics
Exergoeconomic
Variables and Iterative Improvement
Approaches of
Mathematical Optimization
Closure
MODELING,
SIMULATION AND OPTIMIZATION IN ENERGY SYSTEMS
Modeling and Simulation of Energy
Systems
Definition of Modeling and Simulation
A Brief History of Energy Systems
Design Procedures
Modeling
Simulation
Simulation of individual processes
and components
Simulation of complex processes and
plants
Optimization in Energy Systems
Definition of Optimization
The Need for Optimization
A Brief Historical Overview
Development of optimization techniques
Introduction of optimization to energy systems
Formulation of the Optimization Problem
Mathematical statement of the optimization problem
Objective functions
Independent variables
Equality and inequality constraints
Levels of Optimization of Energy
Systems
Methods for Solution of the Optimization Problem
Current State of Development and Future Work in the Field of
Modeling, Simulation and Optimization of Energy Systems
MODELING
AND SIMULATION METHODS
A Brief History of Energy Systems Design Procedures
Modeling
Thermo-Physical Material Properties
Passive Components
Active Components
Control and Monitoring Systems
Process Modeling
Direct versus Inverse Design: "Design" versus
"Simulation"
Simulation Procedures
Individual Processes and Components
The Mathematical Representation of the Transfer Function Π
The Acquisition of Boundary and Initial Conditions
The Solution of the Global System of Equations
Complex Processes and Plants
Translation of the Process Structure into Machine-Readable
Input
Solution of the Global System of Balance Equations
Equation-Oriented Solution Procedures
Component-Oriented Solution Procedures
The Selectively Segregated Approach
Special Topics
Parallel Processing
Simulation with Structure Adaptation
Simulated Annealing
Genetic Algorithms
"Global Cost" Methods: Super-targeting
Optimization
DESIGN
AND OFF-DESIGN SIMULATION OF COMPLEX ENERGY SYSTEMS
Definitions
Position of the “Nameplate Simulation Problem”
Problem formulation
The necessary Data Base
The Governing Equations
Independent Variables
Constraints
Position of the “Steady-State Off-Design Simulation Problem”
Problem formulation
The necessary Data Base
The Governing Equations
Independent Variables
Constraints
Position of the “Unsteady Simulation Problem”
Problem formulation
The necessary Data Base
The Governing Equations
Independent Variables
Constraints
Note on Inverse Design problems
Solution Techniques
Steady Design Problems
Steady Off-Design Problems
Unsteady Problems
OPTIMIZATION
METHODS FOR ENERGY SYSTEMS
Definition of Optimization
Formulation of the Optimization Problem
Mathematical Statement of the Optimization Problem
Objective Functions
Independent Variables
Equality and Inequality Constraints
Levels of Optimization of Energy Systems
Mathematical Methods for Solution of the Optimization Problem
Classes of Mathematical Optimization Methods
Constrained and Unconstrained Programming
Search and Calculus Methods
Linear, Nonlinear, Geometric, and Quadratic Programming
Integer- and Real-valued Programming
Deterministic and Stochastic Programming
Separable Programming
Single and Multiobjective Programming
Dynamic Programming and Calculus of Variations
Genetic Algorithms
Simulated Annealing
Other Methods
Basic Principles of Calculus Methods
Single-variable Optimization
Multi-variable Optimization
Procedure for Solution of the Problem by a Mathematical
Optimization Method
Decomposition
Multilevel Optimization
Modular Simulation and Optimization
Parallel Processing
Special Methods for Optimization of Energy Systems
Methods for Optimization of Heat Exchanger Networks
Heuristic Methods
Search Methods
Pinch Method
Mathematical Programming Methods
Artificial Intelligence Methods
The First Thermo economic Optimization Method
The Functional Approach
Complete Functional Decomposition
Partial Functional Decomposition
Artificial Intelligence Techniques
The Work Ahead
OPERATION
OPTIMIZATION OF ENERGY SYSTEMS
Statement of the Optimization Problem
Solution Methods
Application Example
Description of the Energy System
Primary Energy Sources
Energy Conversion
Operation Optimization of the System
The Need for Operation Optimization
The Optimization Objective
Considerations on Capital and Operation Expenses
Description of the Computer Program
Numerical Results
Results for Typical Load Conditions
Examples of Sensitivity Analysis
DESIGN
AND SYNTHESIS OPTIMIZATION OF ENERGY SYSTEMS
Discussion on the Uniqueness of the Solution of the Synthesis
and Design Optimization Problem and on the Possibility of finding this
Solution
Approaches to the Optimal Synthesis of Energy Systems
Mathematical Statement of the Complete Optimization Problem
Representative Methods for the Solution of the Synthesis
Optimization Problem
The Connectivity Matrix Method
Simulated Annealing
Algorithmic Approaches
Targeting Methods
The Intelligent Functional Approach
Decomposition
Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems Techniques
Application Examples
Optimization of a Waste Incineration Cogeneration Plant
Description of the Superstructure
Identification of Time Intervals
Statement of the Optimization Problem
Thermodynamic and Economic Models
Solution Procedure
Results and Comments
Optimization of an Aircraft Energy System
Description of the System
Statement of the Optimization Problem
Simulation Models
Solution Procedure
Results and Comments
The Performance of Decomposition
DESIGN
OPTIMIZATION OF POWER AND COGENERATION SYSTEMS
The optimal system design for time-independent production
The Interacting Resources of an Energy-Conversion Device
Quantification of the Making and Operating Resources
Making and Operating Resources of a System of Devices
A Decomposition Strategy
Decomposition at the Discipline Level
Decomposition at the Device Level
The Updating Equation
The Price of Exergy Destruction
Global Decision Variables
An application example for time-independent production
The optimal system design for time-dependent production
Problem Complexity
The Computation of System Off-Design Performance
The Performance Equations of Devices
The Performance Equation of a System of Devices
An Illustration of Off-Design Computations
Convergence
Design and Off-Design Results
Overall System Performance Equation
A Simplified Screening Method for Time-Dependent Production
Application examples for time-dependent production.
Power and Heat Cogeneration for Variable Demands
The Investigation Made
The Optimal Operating Mix of Power Plants
The Condition of Optimality
Illustrative Example
ELECTRICAL
NETWORK OPTIMIZATION
Transmission System Optimal Expansion Planning
Transmission System Operational Requirements
Statement of the Optimization Problem
Problem Statement
Formulation
Modelling of Planning Criteria
Technical Planning Constraints
Optimization Methodologies
Closure
DISTRICT
HEATING NETWORKS CALCULATION AND OPTIMIZATION
Pipe Networks
The Engineering Problem
The Model
The Topological Model
The Fluid Dynamic Model
The Energy Model
Other Thermodynamic Models
The Thermo economic Models
The Solution Strategies
An Example
The Optimization versus the Simulation Problem
PETROLEUM
PIPELINE NETWORK OPTIMIZATION
Optimization
Pipelines
Oil Pipelines
Gas Pipelines
Transmission/Product Pipelines
Other Pipelines
Two-Phase Pipelines
LNG Pipelines
CO2 Pipelines
Pipeline Design
Liquids Pipelines
Gas Pipelines
Two-phase Pipeline Design
Energy Savings
Station Design and Operation
Safety Precautions
Pump Application and Design
Centrifugal Pumps
Positive Displacement Pumps
Horsepower Requirements
Compressors
Pipeline Construction
Land Pipeline Construction
Offshore Pipeline Construction
Arctic Pipeline Construction
Optimization Example
ARTIFICIAL
INTELLIGENCE AND EXPERT SYSTEMS IN ENERGY SYSTEMS
ANALYSIS
Is there a "universal" design paradigm?
The "Universal Design Procedure": a possible
flowchart
Definition of needs and objectives
Preliminary estimate of the design costs
Feasibility study
Final design
Construction
Testing and Customers acceptance
Modifications and improvements
Application of the Universal Design Procedure to Process
Synthesis
Formulation and position of a Process Engineering Design task
Towards a general Process Synthesis Paradigm
"Design" and "Optimization"
Process Optimization
The classical viewpoint
Some additional remarks on the Optimisation of Thermal
Systems
Optimisation criteria
Computer-aided Synthesis-and-Design tools
Deterministic Methods for Process Synthesis
The Connectivity Matrix Method
Process Synthesis based on AI Methods
Expert Systems for Design
General knowledge representation for design applications
Example of automatic process design
Application of the Universal Design Procedure to Component
Design
Expert Assistants for Process Diagnostics and Prognostics
ARTIFICIAL
INTELLIGENCE AND ENERGY SYSTEMS: SCOPE AND DEFINITIONS
What is Artificial Intelligence?
AI is No Intelligence!
Definitions of Concepts and Terms
Artificial Intelligence (AI)
Knowledge
Expert System (ES)
Knowledge Base (KB)
Inference Engine (IE)
Rules
Facts
Objects
Classes
Induction
Deduction
Hierarchical Refinement
Blackboard Systems
Decision Tree
Knowledge Engineer
Domain Expert
Relational Versus Deterministic Programming
Possible Versus Existing Applications of AI to Thermal
Systems
Logical Systems
Semantic Networks
Fuzzy Sets
Neural Networks
Casual Versus Mechanical Learning: “Memory”
Search Methods
Handling of Constraints
Qualitative and Approximate Reasoning: Belief
EXPERT
SYSTEMS AND KNOWLEDGE ACQUISITION
General Knowledge representation for design purposes
The Knowledge Acquisition Problem
Acquisition of knowledge is a formidable problem in its own
Implementing the Knowledge Base
Qualitative Knowledge
Are there an "optimal" size and an
"optimal" level for the KB?
Tacit vs. explicit knowledge
Knowledge Decomposition: Semantic Networks
Present Knowledge Acquisition methods
A look into the future: Potential Developments
PRESENT APPLICATIONS
OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE TO ENERGY SYSTEMS
Possible Applications
Existing Applications
Process Monitoring & Control
Scheduling and Planning
Fault Diagnostics and Maintenance
Design
A look into the future: Potential Applications
AI IN
COMPONENT DESIGN
Characterization
of the Design Process
Abstraction
Classification
Analogy
Error
Handling
Hierarchical
Knowledge Elicitation
Expert
Systems, Expert Assistants and Expert Advisors
The
task of "Designing a Component"
General
Strategies
Problem
Breakdown into Structural Elements
Selection
and Design of a Feedwater Pump
The
Physical Problem
Some
Theoretical Considerations
Solution
Choice
and Design of a Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchanger
The
Physical Problem
Some
Theoretical Considerations
Solution
ARTIFICIAL
INTELLIGENCE IN PROCESS DESIGN
Is There a “Universal” Design Paradigm?
Application of the Universal Design Procedure to Process
Engineering Problems
Formulation and Position of a Process Engineering Design Task
Towards a General Process Design Paradigm
“Design” and “Optimization.” Direct and Inverse Problems
Process Synthesizers
Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems
General Knowledge Representation for Design Applications
Problem Specification
Functional Analysis: Relations Between the Given Design
Specifications and the Possibly Relevant Parameters
Design Plan Generation
An Example of Automatic Process Design
Process Optimization: The Classical Viewpoint
Some Additional Remarks on the Optimization of Thermal
Systems
Thermoeconomic Optimization
Extended Exergy Accounting
Examples
Choice and Technical Specification of a Gas Turbine Plant
The Physical Problem
Some Theoretical Considerations
Solution
Optimal Synthesis of a Steam and Power Cogeneration Plant
The Physical Problem
Some Theoretical Considerations
Solution
Optimal Synthesis of a Heat Exchanger Network
The General Problem
Some Theoretical Considerations
The Physical Problem Formulation
SUSTAINABILITY
CONSIDERATIONS IN THE MODELING OF ENERGY SYSTEMS
Expansion of the Meaning of "Optimal System" –
Sustainability
Pollution and Resource-related Indices
Sustainable Energy System Synthesis, Design and Operation -
Environomics
Role of the Second Law of Thermodynamics
National and Global Exergy Accounting of Natural Resources
Closure
LIFE-CYCLE,
ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL CONSIDERATIONS SUSTAINABILITY
Extension of the concept of “Optimal System”
Including the effects of a finite plant life
Including the effects of the life-cycle of the product
The environmental externality
The social externality
Material cycles
Non-Renewable resources
Renewable resources
The tools required for an extended analysis
Embodied Energy Analysis, “EA”
Life Cycle Assessment, “LCA”
Methodology
Key features and limits of LCA
Examples of the application to energy systems
Exergetic Life Cycle Assessment, ELCA
The “Cumulative Exergy Content” Method, CEC
A critique of Neo-Classical Economics
Emergy Analysis, EmA
Extended Exergy Accounting, EEA
Application of the tools Implementation issues and
possible solutions
Availability and quality of Data
Impact assessment indicators and their evaluation
The single value indicator problem
Multi-criteria methods for the interpretation of the results
Asking the right question
Towards what kind of sustainable society?
The “Spaceship Earth” paradigm
Strong and weak sustainability
Resource scarcity: myth or reality?
Sustainable use of resources
Sustainable Agriculture
Sustainable Industrial Sector
Sustainable transportation?
Sustainable Tertiary Sector
Social issues
Closure
STATIC AND DYNAMIC POLLUTION AND RESOURCE RELATED
INDICES
The Nature of Indicators or Indices
Indicators derived by the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Method
The LCA Method
The DALY Concept and Index
Environmental Burden due to Resource
Use Indicator
Environmental Burden due to Emission
of Pollutants Indicator
Climate Change Indicator
Ozone Depletion Indicator
Exergy-based Indices
Thermo-ecological cost
Sustainability Index based on Exergy
Resource Indicators
Possible
Consumption Indicator (PCI)
Current
Consumption Indicator (CCI)
Resource
Depletion Indicator (RDI)
Sustainability Indicators for Energy System Assessment
Resource
Indicators (RI)
Environmental
Indicators
Social
Indicators
Economic Indicators
Numerical Example
Indices derived by the ExternE Project
Background
and Objectives of the ExternE Project
Methodology
for Impact Assessment
Methodology
for Economic Valuation
Results
from Application to the Main
Fossil Fuel Cycles
Assessment
of Global Warming Damages
Closure
ANALYSIS
AND OPTIMIZATION OF ENERGY SYSTEMS WITH SUSTAINABILITY CONSIDERATIONS
The Environomic Optimization Problem
Statement of the Problem and its Objective or Figure of Merit
Pollution Measures, Penalties, and Costs
Resource Scarcity Measures, Penalties, and Costs
Methods for Estimating External Environmental Costs
Market-Based Approaches for Internalizing Environmental
Externalities
Additional Considerations
Application Examples on Analysis and/or Evaluation
Economic Analysis of a Gas-Turbine Cogeneration System
Description of the System
Net Present Cost of the System
Unit Cost of SO2 Abatement
Critical Values of the SO2 Penalty
Numerical Application
Evaluation of Alternative Systems
Application Examples on Optimization
Optimization of a Gas-Turbine System with SO2 Abatement
Statement of the Optimization Problems
Numerical Results and Comments
Optimization of a Recuperative Gas-Turbine Cogeneration
System
Statement of the Optimization Problems
Numerical Results and Comments
Optimization of a District Heating Network with Centralized
and Decentralized Heat Pumps, Cogeneration, and/or a Gas Furnace
The DHN Super-Configuration for the Environomic Model
Statement of the Optimization Problem
Numerical Results and Comments
Closure
GLOBAL
IMPLICATIONS OF THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Dissipation of Energy
Influence of the Laws of Non-equilibrium Thermodynamics
Influence of Solar Radiation on the State of the Terrestrial
Environment
Influence of the Emission of Deleterious Waste Products and
Deforestation
Depletion of Non-renewable Natural Resources
Conservation of the Natural Environment
Improvement of the Thermodynamic Imperfection of Processes
Reduction of the CO2 Emission
Utilization of Renewable Energy Sources
Utilization of Waste Products
Mitigation of the Consumption of Final Products
NATIONAL
EXERGY ACCOUNTING OF NATURAL RESOURCES
The Energy Supply System
Energy System of Sweden in Terms of Energy
Energy System of Sweden in Terms of Exergy
Exergy use in Swedish Society
Solar Heating
Forestry and Industry Based on Forests
Agriculture and Food Production
Electricity from Hydropower and Thermal Power
Iron Ore
Nuclear Fuel
Chemical Fuels
Exergy Losses from Energy Conversions into Heat
Chains of Resource Conversions
Exergy Use in Japanese Society
Solar Heating
Forestry and Industry Based on Forests
Agriculture and Food Production
Electricity from Hydropower and Thermal Power
Metals
Nuclear Fuel
Chemical Fuels
Exergy Losses from Energy Conversions into Heat and Cold
Exergy Use in Italian Society
Solar Heating
Forestry and Industry Based on Forests
Agriculture and Food Production
Electricity from Hydroelectric-power and Thermal Power
Metals
Chemical Fuels
Exergy Losses from Energy Conversions into Heat and Cold
The Total System
A Historical and Global Perspective
Exergy Use in Swedish Society during the 1920s
Technical Uses of Natural Resources
Agriculture
Forestry
Solid Fuels
Liquid Fuels
Electric Power
Resource Conversion within Ghana Society in 1975
GLOBAL
EXERGY ACCOUNTING OF NATURAL RESOURCES
The exergy replacement cost
The exergy replacement cost of the natural mineral capital
The exergy replacement cost of the world’s renewable water
resources
An assessment of the earth's clean fossil exergy capital
based on exergy abatement costs
Results
The value of the earth’s mineral capital
The value of the world’s renewable water resources
The value of the earth's clean fossil exergy capital
Closure
EFFICIENT
USE AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
The Energy Efficiency Imperative
Historical Trends
Efficiency of Energy Conversion
Thermodynamic Basics
The Science of Thermodynamics
Thermodynamic Systems
First Law of Thermodynamics
Entropy and Second Law of Thermodynamics
Thermodynamic Laws and Energy Conversion
Measures of Efficiency
First Law Efficiency
Second Law Efficiency
Total Resource Efficiency-Merits of Electrotechnologies
Energy Use Management
Developing an On-Site Energy Management Program
Demand-Side Management Programs
Energy Efficiency Measures
Buildings
Lighting
Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning (HVAC)
Building Envelope
Industrial Processes
Transportation
Agriculture
Who Benefits from Energy Efficiency?
Consumer Perspective
Program Participant and Non-Participant Perspectives
Utility Perspective
Societal Perspective
Toward a Sustainable Energy Future
EFFICIENT
USE AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY IN THE INDUSTRIAL SECTOR
Energy Resources
Primary Resources
Fossil Fuels
Nuclear Fuel
Renewable Resources
Secondary Resources
Heat Recovery
On-Site Generation
Thermal Energy Storage
Industrial Energy Management Program
Energy Managers and Steering Committee
Historical Data
Energy Audit Methodology
Energy-Efficiency Opportunities
Energy-Efficient Building Operation
Energy-Efficient Process Operation
On-Site Generation Efficiency
Efficiency of Grounds
Plant Efficiency
Implementation
Monitoring
Progress in Industrial Energy Efficiency
Electricity Use
Fossil-Fuel Use
Specific Industrial Processes
EFFICIENT
USE OF ELECTRICITY IN PROCESS OPERATION
Motors and Drives
Perspective
Energy-Efficiency Opportunities
Operation and Maintenance
Equipment Retrofit and Replacement
Fans, Blowers, Pumps
Case Study High-Efficiency Motor versus Standard Motor
Compressed Air Systems
Perspective
Energy-Efficiency Opportunities
Operation and Maintenance
Equipment Retrofit and Replacement
Case Study Summary of Air Compression Efficiency Measures at
4300 Industrial Plants
Process Heat
Perspective
Energy-Efficiency Opportunities
Operation and Maintenance of Thermal Process Heat Systems
Equipment Retrofit and Replacement
Efficiency Electric Heating Technologies
Efficiency Advantages of Electric Process-Heat Systems
Case Study Induction Technology for Billet Heating
Electrolysis
Perspective
Energy-Efficiency Opportunities
Case Study New Electrode for Hall-Heroult Electrolytic Cells
Electrical-Efficiency Trends
Perspective
Technologies
Case Study Electric Freeze Concentration
EFFICIENT
USE OF FOSSIL FUELS IN PROCESS OPERATION
Combustion
Perspective
Energy-Efficiency Opportunities
Operation and Maintenance
Equipment Retrofit and Replacement
Case Study - Reduce Excess Air to Improve Efficiency
Boilers
Perspective
Energy-Efficiency Opportunities
Operation and Maintenance
Equipment Retrofit and Replacement
Case Study - Soot-Removal from Fire-Side Boiler Tubes
Steam Systems
Perspective
Energy-Efficiency Opportunities
Operation and Maintenance
Equipment Retrofit and Replacement
Case Study-Improved Controls to Reduce Steam Consumption
Process Heat
Perspective
Energy-Efficiency Opportunities
Operation and Maintenance
Equipment Retrofit and Replacement
Case Study - Replacement of a Conventional Kiln with an
Energy-efficiency Kiln
Trends
Combustion
Boilers and Steam
Process Heat
ENERGY
EFFICIENCY IN SPECIFIC INDUSTRIAL SEGMENTS
Selected Industries Overview
Perspective
Energy-Efficiency Opportunities
Trends
Aluminum Industry
Perspective
Energy-Efficiency Opportunities
Trends
Steel Industry
Perspective
Energy-Efficiency Opportunities
Trends
TOTAL
PLANT ENERGY EFFICIENCY
Total Plant Energy Balance
On-Site Generation
Overview
Cogeneration
Perspective
Technologies
Applications
Trends
Case Studies
Case Study 1—Oil Facility to Sell Electricity to Open Market
Case Study 2—Evaluation of an Advanced Turbine System for
Cogeneration
Thermal-Energy Storage
Overview
Cogeneration with Thermal-Energy Storage
Heat Recovery
Overview
Recuperators
EFFICIENT
USE AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY IN BUILDINGS
Building Structure Elements
Insulation
Storm and Multipane Windows and Storm Doors
Window Treatments
Infiltration and Indoor Air Quality Control
Passive Solar Design
Duct and Pipe Insulation
Daylighting
Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning
High Efficiency Air-Source Central Heat Pump
Groundwater Source Heat Pump
Ground-Coupled Heat Pump
Multi-Zone Heat Pump
Room Heat Pump
Dual-Fuel Heating Systems
Add-On Heat Pump
Active Solar Space Heating
Task Heating
Zoned Resistance Heating
High-EER Air Conditioner
Slab Heating
Ice Storage Air Conditioning
Energy Consuming Devices and Appliances
Heat Pump Domestic Water Heating
Recovery Water Heater
Solar Domestic Water Heating
Energy-Efficient Cooking Appliances
Energy-Efficient Clothes Washers and Dishwashers
Storage Water Heater Blankets
Energy-Efficient Refrigerators and Freezers
Efficient Lighting Fixtures and Lamps
Load Management Technologies
Receiver Switches
Domestic Water Heater Cycling Control
Air Conditioner Cycling Control
Timers
Appliance Interlocks
Programmable Controllers
Temperature-Activated Switches
Load Management Thermostats
Swimming Pool Pump Control
EFFICIENT
USE OF LIGHTING IN BUILDINGS
Illumination
Visual Task and Performance
Energy Efficiency in Lighting
Design Lighting for the Expected Visual Task or Function of
Space
Consider the Physical Characteristics of the Area
Use More Efficient Light Sources
Design with More Effective Luminaires
Mountings
Luminaire Types
Outdoor Lighting
High Intensity Discharge (HID) Sources
Life Cycle Costing
New Luminaire Design
Energy Saving Techniques
Controls
Lighting Panelboard Controls
Switching Control
Dimmer Switch Control
Photoelectric Switch
Photocontrolled Dimmer
Time Clock
Electronic Sensing Devices
Maintenance and Operation
Group Relamping and Maintenance
Lamps
Life Cycle Costing
Lighting System Planning and Design
Five Steps in Planning a Lighting System
Retrofit Technologies
Lamp/Ballast Technology Performance
Lamp Performance Measures
Energy Efficiency
Lamp Life
Lamp Lumen Depreciation (LLD)
Color Rendering Index (CRI)
Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)
Lamp Types
Tungsten Halogen Lamps
Compact Fluorescent Lamps
Full-Size Fluorescent Lamps
High Intensity Discharge Lamps
Retrofitting Opportunities
Luminaire Retrofit Technologies
Lenses
Control Technologies
Retrofitting Occupancy Sensors
Dimming Controls
Timers and Time Clocks
Photocells
Latching Switches
EFFICIENT
USE OF HEATING, VENTILATING, AND AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS IN BUILDINGS
Chillers and Chilled-Water Systems
Description of Equipment
Chillers
Chilled-Water Loop
Condenser-Water Loop
Energy-Efficiency Opportunities
Operation, Maintenance, and Control of Chillers and
Chilled-Water Systems
Equipment Retrofit and Replacement
Thermal Energy Storage Systems
Cooling Towers
Description of Equipment
Energy-Efficiency Opportunities
Equipment Retrofit and Replacement
Air Conditioning Units
Description of Equipment
Energy-Efficiency Opportunities
Operation, Maintenance, and Control of Air Conditioning Units
Equipment Retrofit and Replacement
Heat Pumps
Description of Equipment
Energy-Efficiency Opportunities
Compressors
Outdoor Coil Systems
Indoor Coil Systems
Reversing Valves
Expansion Devices
Refrigerant Charge Control
Cabinet
Cabinet Size and Strength Constraints
Manufacturing Constraints
Packaged Terminal Equipment
Description of Equipment
Energy-Efficiency Opportunities
Boilers and Furnaces
Description of Equipment
Energy-Efficiency Opportunities
Operation and Maintenance
Equipment Retrofit and Replacement
BUILDING
ENVELOPE EFFICIENCY MEASURES
Exterior Walls
Insulation
Minimize Thermal Bridging
Passive Solar Heating
Passive Solar Cooling
Air Flow and Moisture Control
Windows
Daylighting
Reduce Heat Gain
Optimize Heat Gain
Low-Conductivity Casements
Rooftops and Ceilings
Insulation
Cool Roofs and Coatings
Solar Collectors
Foundations, Floors, and Basements
Infiltration and Ventilation
EFFICIENT
USE AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY IN THE TRANSPORTATION SECTOR
Energy Usage
Fuel Efficiency and Energy Intensity Trends
Use of Alternative Fuels
Electric Drive Vehicles
Energy Efficiency Opportunities
ENERGY
EFFICIENCY IN FREIGHT TRANSPORTATION
Freight Truck
Pipeline
Rail Freight
Waterborne Freight
Air Freight
Energy-Efficiency Opportunities for Freight Transport
Reduce Demand
Increase Load Factor
Shift to More Efficient Modes
Improve Vehicle Efficiency
Operate with Highest Efficiency
Invoke Progress through Intervention and Technological
Innovation
ENERGY
EFFICIENCY IN MASS TRANSIT SYSTEMS
Air
Bus
Transit Rail
Intercity Rail
Energy Efficiency Opportunities
Reduce Demand
Increase Load Factor
Shift to More Efficient Mode
Improve Vehicle Efficiency
Operate with Highest Efficiency
Invoke Progress through Intervention and Technological
Innovation
ENERGY
EFFICIENCY IN PASSENGER CARS AND LIGHT TRUCKS
Personal Passenger Vehicle Travel
Energy Use Characteristics
Energy Efficiency Opportunities
Reduce Demand
Increase Load Factor
Shift to More Efficient Modes
Improve Vehicle Efficiency
Operate with Highest Efficiency
Invoke Progress through Intervention and Technological
Innovation
EFFICIENT
USE AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY IN THE AGRICULTURAL SECTOR
Energy Usage
Energy Efficiency Measures
Conservation Agriculture
Renewable Sources
Solar Energy
Photovoltaics
Crop Drying
Greenhouse Heating
Lighting, Space Heating, and Water Heating
Wind Energy
Geothermal Energy
Biomass: Energy from Agriculture
Conversion and Use of Biomass Energy
Perennial Energy Crops
ENERGY
EFFICIENCY IN PUMPING AND IRRIGATION SYSTEMS
Energy-Efficient Irrigation
Electric Pumping Plant Efficiency
Inherent Inefficiencies
Information Resources
Computerized Scheduling of Irrigation
Irrigation Load Management
ENERGY
EFFICIENCY IN AGRICULTURAL EQUIPMENT
Crop Equipment
Efficient Use of Tractors and Implements
Crop Drying Efficiency Measures
Livestock Equipment
Evaporative Cooling Systems for Livestock
Milk Heat Recovery on Dairy Farms
Heat Recovery Equipment
Groundwater–Ice Bank Milk Cooling
Energy-Efficient Lighting for Livestock Production
Farm Motors and Drives
Energy-Efficient Farm Motors
Variable Frequency Drives for Agriculture Ventilation Fans
Variable Speed Drives for Dairy Vacuum Pumps
ENERGY
EFFICIENCY IN FERTILIZER PRODUCTION AND USE
Fertilization for Crop Productivity
Trends in Fertilizer Use
Energy Intensity of Fertilization
Energy-Efficient Fertilization Practices
Measures to Increase the Efficiency of Ammonia Production
Measures to Increase the Efficiency of Fertilizer Use
USING
DEMAND-SIDE MANAGEMENT TO SELECT ENERGY EFFICIENT TECHNOLOGIES AND PROGRAMS
Demand-Side Management
What Is Real
What is DSM
How Did DSM Evolve
DSM Impacts
Efficiency Investments
Load Management Costs and Benefits
DSM Potential
DSM Evaluation
Measuring Success
The Role of Research and Development
The Benefits of DSM Evaluation
The Energy Efficiency Program Selection Planning Process
Demand-Side Management Practice
Market Transformation
The Advantages of Market Transformation
Fostering Innovation
Public Benefit Funding
EFFICIENT
USE OF ELECTRICITY THROUGH DEMAND-SIDE MANAGEMENT
The Use of Energy and Electricity
Technological Revolution
Energy Savings
Big-Ticket Items
DECIDING
WHICH DEMAND-SIDE MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES TO PURSUE
Load-Shape Objectives
End Use
Technology Alternatives
How To Select Alternatives
Levels of Analysis
Information Requirements
Transferability
Data Requirements
Cost/Benefit Analysis
Non-Monetary Benefits and Costs
Expected Changes in Load Shape
Program Interaction
Dynamic Load Shapes
Forecasting and Promoting Demand-Side Management Alternatives
Estimating Future Market Demand and Customer Participation
Rates
Consumer and Market Research
MARKET
IMPLEMENTATION METHODS
The Market Planning Framework
Factors Influencing Customer Acceptance and Response
Customer Satisfaction
Direct Customer Contact
Trade Ally Cooperation
Advertising and Promotion
Alternative Pricing
Direct Incentives
Program Planning
Program Management
Program Logistics
The Implementation Process
Monitoring and Evaluation
Monitoring Program Validity
Data and Information Requirements
Management Concerns
EVALUATION
AND SELECTION OF DEMAND-SIDE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS IN THE COMMERCIAL SECTOR
Buildings and Energy
Changes in Construction
Building Sector Strategies and Programs
Building Sector Demand-Side Management Technology Options
Building Envelope Options
Efficient Equipment Options
Building and Subsystem Control
Building Market Segmentation
Why Segment the Commercial Market?
Customer Needs, Benefits, and Buying Criteria
Customer Type
Customer Size
Technology
End Uses
Fusing Utility Load Shape Modification Objectives with
Customer End Uses, Technology Choices, and Needs
Illustrative Segmentation Case Study
RENEWABLE
ENERGY SOURCES CHARGED WITH ENERGY FROM THE SUN AND ORIGINATED FROM
EARTH–MOON INTERACTION
Biomass as an Energy Source
Biomass Origin
Use of Biomass Energy
Thermochemical Conversion
Biochemical Conversion
Wind Energy
Wind Origin
Wind Characteristics
Use of Wind Energy
Wind Energy Conversion Systems
Environmental Issues of Wind Energy Use
Economics of Wind Energy
Wave Energy
Wave Characteristics
Use of Wave Energy
Environmental Implications of Wave Energy Use
Wave Energy Economics
Temperature Differences in the Ocean and Between Ocean and Air
as Energy Source
Temperature Difference in the Ocean
Use of Temperature Differences in the Ocean
Air/Water Temperature Difference Utilization
OTEC, AWTEC, and OTEC/DOWA Economics
OTEC and OTEC/DOWA Interaction with the Environment
Tidal Energy
Origin and Types of Tide
Energy and Power of the Tide
Tidal Power Plants
ENERGY
FROM BIOMASS
Biomass
Photosynthesis and Biomass Yields
Biomass Properties
Polymeric and Chemical Composition
Fuels Analysis
Physical Properties
Biomass Briquettes and Pellets
The Biomass and Bioenergy System
Biomass is the World’s Fourth Fuel
Individual Country Usage
End-use Patterns of Biomass and Bioenergy Use
Daily Living
Efficiency of Small Scale Combustion
Small Scale Space Heating
Community Systems - District Heating and Cooking Systems
Biomass Fueled District Heating
District Heating Using Biomass Fueled Combined Heat and Power
(CHP) Plants
Cooking Fuel Distribution Systems
Industrial Applications
Small Industries, Commercial and Institutional Uses
Combined Heat and Power (CHP) or Cogeneration
Environmental Technologies
Anaerobic Digestion
Commercial Technical Processes of Anaerobic Conversion of
Residues
Applications for Developing Countries
Animal Residue Equivalents for a Given Output of Electricity
Biofuels
Charcoal
Charcoal Production Technology
Liquid Fuels from Biomass
Ethanol
Cost and Scale Information
Ethanol from Lignocellulosics
Biodiesel
Power Generation Technologies
Cofiring
Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC)
Lifecycle and Economic Aspects
Biomass Resources
Biomass Energy in the Daily Living Sector
Energy Plantations
Species being considered for Energy
DIRECT
COMBUSTION OF BIOMASS
Background
Fundamentals of Biomass Combustion
Efficiency Constraints in Combustion
The Nature of Biomass Solid Fuels
Standard Tests in Fuels Analysis
Proximate and Ultimate Analysis
Fuel Preparation
Combustion Products from Biomass
Mineral Matter and Ash
Nitrogen Oxides
Sulfur Dioxide SO2
Chlorine tube corrosion and dioxin (TCDD) formation
Gaseous and Liquid Fuels Derived from Biomass
Biogas
Thermal Production of Low or Medium Value Calorific Gas
Biomass derived gas combustion
Emissions Control
Particulate control
Biomass Combustion Systems - Performance and Economics
Space Heating
Heat and Power Generation
Trends in Heat, Power and Combined Heat and Power Production
THERMOCHEMICAL
CONVERSION OF BIOMASS
Pyrolysis Fundamentals
The Chemical Nature of Pyrolysis in the Solid and Gaseous
States
Thermal Aspects of Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis Process Technology
Slow Prolysis
Fast Pyrolysis
Fast Pyrolysis Process Developments
Bio-oils from Fast Pyrolysis. Properties and Applications
Economics and Environment, Health and Safety (EH&S) of
Bio-oils
Gasification Technologies
Gasification Fundamentals
Gasifier Systems
The Counter Flow Moving Bed Gasifier (updraft)
Fludized Bed Gasifiers
Entrained Flow Gasifiers
Co-current Moving Bed Gasifiers (downdraft and cross draft
units)
Indirect gasifiers
Black Liquor Gasification
Applications of Gasification
Power Systems
Liquid Fuels and Chemicals Production
Fischer-Tropsch Production of Hydrocarbon Liquid Fuels
The production of Methanol and Higher Alcohols from Syngas
DiMethyl Ether and Gasolines from Methanol
WIND
ENERGY
History of Wind Application
Wind Energy for Electrical Power Production
Horizontal and Vertical Axis Wind Turbines
Wind Machines Mode of Operation
Trends and Prospects of Wind Power Application for Vessels
Propulsion.
Flettner Rotor for Ship Propulsion
Wind Power Driving the Ship Propelling Screws
Wind Turbine Technology
Aerodynamics of the Wind Wheel
Types of Electrical Generators Used With Wind Mills
Wind Turbine Generator System Classes
Control Systems
Tower Type
Power Transmission from Sea to Shore
Stand-alone Systems
Turbines for Water Heating
Batteries
Hybrid Systems
Environmental Aspects
Legal Aspects
Economics of Wind Systems
International and National Activity
GENERAL
CHARACTERISTICS AND METEOROLOGY OF WIND
Wind Distribution
Eolian Features
Biological Indicators
Anemometers
Wind Direction
Energy and Power of Wind
Wind energy classification
The Effect of Site Wind Characteristics on Energy Production
of Wind Turbines
Wind Conditions
Normal Wind Conditions.
Extreme Wind Conditions
Siting for Wind Turbines
FUNDAMENTALS
OF ENERGY EXTRACTION FROM WIND
Forces Arising when Wind Flows Over an Airfoil
Power Carried Over by the Wind and Extracted by the Wind
Wheel
Types and Operating Characteristics of Wind Rotors
Wind Turbine Design and Output
WIND MILLS
WITH HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL SHAFT
General Considerations
Development of Large Horizontal-Axis Systems
Development of Vertical-Axis Systems
Control Systems
Aerodynamics
Structural Dynamics
Fatigue and Failure Analysis
WIND
INSTALLATION FOR WATER PUMPING, AUTONOMOUS AND GRID-CONNECTED POWER
PRODUCTION
Agricultural Applications
Stand-alone and Wind/diesel Hybrid Systems
Water Pumping
Matching of Wind Rotors and Pumps
Future Potential of Wind powered Pumping
Wakes and Clusters
Siting Large Wind Machines
Wind Prospecting
Evaluation of a Predetermined Site
Siting Small Wind Machines
Determining Feasibility
Selecting Site and System
ECONOMICS
OF WIND INSTALLATIONS
General Considerations
Economics of Wind Energy for Utilities
Economics of Wind Energy for Small Applications
WIND
INSTALLATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Acoustics
Electromagnetic Interference
Television
AM Radio, FM Radio, TV Audio and Microwave Communication.
Aircraft Navigational Systems
Aesthetic
Land Use and Soil Disturbances
Biophysical
Environmental Conditions
NATURAL
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCES AS AN ENERGY SOURCE
Temperature Differences in the Ocean and Between Air and
Water.
Extracting Work from the Ocean Heat Reservoir
OTEC Principle and Historical Background
OTEC Technology Description
Ocean Thermal Resource and OTEC Plants Sites
OTEC By-products and Deep Ocean Water Applications
Environmental Issues of the Exploitation of Ocean Thermal
Energy
Ocean Thermal Energy: Costs and Economic Value
Ocean Thermal Energy Perspectives
TEMPERATURE
DIFFERENCES IN THE OCEAN AT LOW LATITUDE AND BETWEEN SEA OR RIVER WATER AND
AIR AT HIGH LATITUDES
Thermal Energy Accumulation
Types of Thermal Stratification
Local Vertical Temperature Distribution in the Surface Layer
Abyssal Circulation
Estimates of Ocean Thermal Energy Stocks
OTEC Using Industrial Water
Cold Deep Ocean Water Application
Air Conditioning
Refrigeration
Temperature Differences at High Latitudes
Assessment of Arctic Ocean Thermal Resources
Energy Resources of the Temperature Difference Between
Surface and Deep Waters in Fjords
Temperature Differences Between Warm Ocean and Iceberg
Temperature Differences: DOW - Hydrothermal Vents
Temperature Difference Between Land Geothermal Sources and
Ocean Waters
SCHEMES
AND CYCLES FOR OCEAN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCES UTILIZATION
Background
Technical Limitations
OTEC and the Environment
Engineering Challenges
Open Cycle OTEC
The 210 kW OC-OTEC Experimental Apparatus
Design of a Small Land-Based OC-OTEC Plant
Closed Cycle OTEC
Design of a Pre-Commercial Floating Hybrid-OTEC Plant
Potential Sites
Economic Considerations and Market Potential
Hydrogen Production
Externalities
SCHEMES AND
CYCLES OF AIR/WATER TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCES UTILIZATION
Classification of Converters
Main Schemes of Converters
Theoretical Aspects
Practical Aspects
ECONOMICS
OF NATURAL TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCES UTILIZATION
Basis of Assessment
Market
Opportunity
Status of Technology
Other Factors
Case Study
ENVIRONMENTAL
ISSUES OF NATURAL TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCES UTILIZATION
Review of the OTEC and AWTEC Potential Markets and
Development Foresight
Review of the Main Environmental Characteristics of the
Potential OTEC and AWTEC Plants Site
Review of OTEC and AWTEC Plants Features of Main Concern for
the Environment
Impacts of OTEC Facilities Water Discharges. Theoretical and
Experimental Results
A Study Case: the Tahiti 5 MW OTEC Project
At Sea Experiment on Artificial Upwelling; the Japanese
Ocean-based Toyama Facility
Monitoring Waters Discharges at the NELHA Facilities
WAVE
ENERGY
Waves Origin
Energy of Wind Waves
Methods of Wave Energy Extraction
Application of Wave Energy
Wave Energy Converters Classification
WAVE
MOTION PHYSICS AND ENERGY POTENTIAL
Linear Wind Waves
Nonlinear Wind Waves
Stocks Theory
Theory of an Isolated Wave
Wave Energy Resources
PRINCIPLES
OF WIND WAVE ENERGY EXTRACTION
General Equations
Principles of Wave Energy Extraction
Principles of Design for Wave Energy Extraction
Types of Processes and Tools for Wave Energy Extraction
Detailed Analysis of Working Tools Design
PROPOSED
SYSTEMS FOR WAVE ENERGY CONVERSION
General Considerations
Designs that Use Periodic Alteration of Water Level in a
Point of a Relatively Stabilized Body
Designs that Use the Difference of Phases of Water Levels in
Spatially Spread Points
Designs that Use the Phases of Hydrostatic Pressure
Difference in Spatially Spread Points
Designs that Use the Phases Difference in Total Water
Pressure in Spatially Spread Points
Designs that Use Alteration of Total Pressure along a
Relatively Stabilized Body
Designs that Use the Slope of Wave Surface
Designs for Wave Energy Concentration
Designs Used for Conversion of Energy of Particles in a Wave
ECONOMICS
OF WAVE POWER PRODUCTION
Economic Showings of Wave Power Devices
Ways of Feasibility Showings Improvement
Classification of Wave Power Devices by Consumer’s
Requirements
Analysis of Comparative Economic Efficiency of Wave Power
Devices.
ENVIRONMENTAL
ASPECTS OF WAVE POWER
General Aspects
Wave Power Devices Environmental Features
Ways to Improve Wave Power Devices Friendliness
TIDAL
ENERGY
Tidal Range
The Energy of Ocean Tides
Main Positive Features of Tidal Energy
Projects of TPP
Efficient Model of Tidal Energy Usage
Economical Methods of TPP Construction
Ecological Safety of TPP
First in the World Industrial TPP Rance in France
First in Russia Kislaya Guba TPP
Projects of Global TPP in Russia
Annapolis TPP and Projects of High-Capacity TPP in Fundy Gulf
in Canada
Construction of TPP in China
TPP in Korea
Project of High-Capacity TPP Severn in England
Role of Tidal Energy in the World Energetics
CHARACTERISTICS
OF TIDAL ENERGY
Tide Characteristics
Tidal Energy in the World Oceans and Balance of Tidal Energy
Energy Potential
Diurnal Irregularity of Tidal Energy
Inequalities within a Month of Tidal Energy
Invariability of Monthly Mean Tidal Ranges
HISTORICAL
SKETCH, PERSPECTIVE AND CLASSIFICATION OF TPP SCHEMES
Historical Perspective of Utilization of Tidal Power
Classifications and Comparison of TPP Schemes
Single-pool Double-action Scheme
Single-pool One-action Scheme
Comparison of One- and Double-action Schemes.
Comparison of the Single-pool Scheme with Multi-pool Schemes
SPECIFIC
FEATURES OF TIDAL POWER PLANTS
Specific Features of Site Selection
Specific Features of Determination of TPP Capacity and Output
Non-traditional Technologies of TPP Erection
Longevity of TPP Materials and Structures in Oceanic
Environment
TPP Protection from Ice Effects in Northern Regions
TIDAL
POWER PLANT EQUIPMENT
History of Turbine Optimization for TPP
Straight-Flow Turbine
Straight-flow “Straflo” Pilot Unit for the Annapolis TPP
Bulb Turbine
Rance TPP Bulb Unit
Kislaya Guba TPP Bulb Unit with Step-up Gear and Cycle
Generator
Comparison of the “Straflo” Units and Bulb Units
New Orthogonal Turbine for TPP
ENVIRONMENTAL
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