Encyclopedia of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences - Table of Contents

TROPICAL METEROLOGY

ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS

“LET THERE BE LIGHT”: THE EMERGENCE OF STRUCTURE OUT OF THE DARK AGES IN THE EARLY UNIVERSE

Introduction

Galaxy Formation

Probing the Diffuse Intergalactic Hydrogen

Conclusions

GEOLOGY

Historical review

Philosophical Basis of the Methodology of Geology

First-Order Explanatory Models of Geology Today

IGNEOUS AND METAMORPHIC PETROLOGY

The Magmatic Process

The Metamorphic Process

Relationship Between Petrogenesis and Geodynamics

Petrogenesis and Life

Historical Perspective and Future Developments of Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology

OCCURRENCE, TEXTURE, AND CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

Mode of Occurrence of Igneous Rocks

Texture of Igneous Rocks

Classification and Nomenclature of Igneous Rocks

THE MANTLE AND ITS PRODUCTS

The Layered Earth

Mineralogy and Chemical Composition of the Mantle

Volatiles in the Mantle

Melting in the Mantle

Primary Melts from the Mantle

Mantle Components

Mantle Metasomatism

Noble Gases in the Mantle

Pollution of the Mantle

PROCESSES OF MAGMA EVOLUTION AND MAGMATIC SUITES

Melting in Earths Mantle

Magma Chambers

Magma Differentiation Trends

Development of Thought and Future Avenues

ROLE OF FLUIDS IN IGNEOUS PETROGENESIS

Magmatic Fluids

Remnants of Magmatic Fluids in Igneous Rocks: Melt and Fluid Inclusions in Minerals

Origin of Magmatic Fluids: Earth Degassing and Recycling

Modeling Magmatic Fluids

Influence of Magmatic Fluids on Geological Phenomena

ORIGIN, TEXTURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Occurrence

Classification

Minerals of Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic Facies

Tectonic Setting of Metamorphic Facies

Textures

Kinetics

PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE, FLUID PRESSURE CONDITIONS OF METAMORPHISM

General Features of Metamorphism

Temperature

Pressure

Variations of Metamorphic Mineral Assemblages in Dependence of Pressure and Temperature

Role of the Fluid Phase During Metamorphism

Trends in Metamorphic Petrology

ULTRAMETAMORPHISM AND CRUSTAL ANATEXIS

Ultrametamorphic Facies: a Brief Summary

Anatexis and Migmatites: Where and When?

Geometry of Partial Melting: Mobility and Fate of Crustal Liquids

Geodynamic Settings: Anatexis Under Compressional and Extensional Regimes

BEHAVIOR OF TRACE ELEMENTS DURING MAGMA GENESIS AND EVOLUTION

Geochemical Modeling using Trace Elements

Trace Elements as Discriminants of Tectonic Settings of Igneous Rocks

Future Perspectives of Trace-Element Studies: In-Situ Microanalysis

APPLICATIONS OF ISOTOPES TO IGNEOUS PETROGENESIS

Radiogenic Isotope Systems

Cosmogenic Nuclides

Stable Isotopes

Applications of Isotopes to Igneous Petrogenesis

Recent Advances and Future Applications of Isotopes to Igneous Petrogenesis

MANTLE DYNAMICS AND PLATE KINEMATICS

Techniques to Sample the Interior of the Earth

Seismic Tomography

Changes in Earth’s Gravity Field and their Implications for Mantle Dynamics

Dynamic Structure of the Mantle and Ice Loss in Antarctica and Greenland

How the Rheology of the Mantle Impacts the Style of Subduction

Plate Kinematics

The Hot Spot Reference Frame and the Westward Drift of the Lithosphere

Plate Boundaries

Plate Kinematics versus Mantle Dynamics

INTRODUCTION TO THE MINERALOGICAL SCIENCES

Introduction to Minerals and Mineralogy

Introduction to the Mineralogical Sciences

The Rock-Forming Minerals of Earth: from the Crust to the Core

Methods in the Mineralogical Sciences

Modern Developments in the Mineralogical Sciences

Fields in the Mineralogical Sciences

Mineralogy and the Earth Sciences: The Connection Between Minerals and Rocks

The Mineralogical Sciences and the Industrial Society

History Through the Eyes of a Mineralogist: Archeometry

Mineralogy and the Environment

THE CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF MINERALS

Symmetry Elements

Periodicity

Crystal Systems and Point groups

Translation Lattices

Translation Groups ( line-, plane- and space groups)

Defects, Quasi-periodic and Aperiodic Structures

Crystal Chemistry

The Crystal Structures

MODERN XRD METHODS IN MINERALOGY

The Diffraction of X-rays

The Generation of the Primary Beam

Single Crystal Methods

Powder Diffraction

The Position of a Bragg Reflection

The Intensity of a Bragg Reflection

The Profile of a Bragg Reflection

Crystal Structure Solution

Crystal Structure Refinement

Powder Diffraction in Non-ambient Conditions

Texture, Stress, and Microdiffraction

ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES FOR ELEMENTAL ANALYSIS OF MINERALS

Bulk (Non-Position-Sensitive) Methods

Beam (Position-Sensitive) Methods

THERMODYNAMICS OF MINERALS AND MINERAL REACTIONS

Measurement of Thermodynamic Data

Estimated Thermodynamic Data

Compilation of Thermodynamic Data

Self-Consistent Thermodynamic Data Sets

Derivation of Thermodynamic Data from Natural Assemblages

Thermodynamic Calculation of Univariant Phase Equilibria

Application of Thermodynamic Calculation to Mineral Assemblages

EXPERIMENTAL MINERALOGY AND MINERAL PHYSICS

Experimental Mineralogy

Mineral Physics

ORE MINERALOGY

Introduction to Ore Mineralogy

Characteristic Physical Properties of Ore Minerals

Reflected-Light Microscopy

Ore Minerals

Introduction to Mineral Deposits

APPLIED MINERALOGY AND THE INDUSTRIAL USE OF MINERALS

The Industrial Use of Natural Non-Ore Minerals

Mineralogical Materials Science and Processing

CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERAL DEPOSITS

Mineral Deposits

ECONOMIC MINERALS: A REVIEW OF THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND OCCURRENCE

Native Elements: Class 1

Sulfides and Related Compounds

Oxides

Halogenides

Carbonates

Nitrates

Borates

Sulfates

Phosphates, Arsenates, and Vanadates

Tungstates

Silicates

IRON AND MANGANESE ORE DEPOSITS: MINERALOGY GEOCHEMISTRY, AND ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

Iron Ore Deposits

Manganese Ore Deposits

Outlook on the Twenty-First Century

CHROMITE-PLATINUM-GROUP ELEMENT MAGMATIC DEPOSITS

Chromium and PGE Geochemistry in Magmatic Systems

Types and Geotectonic Setting of ChromitePGE Magmatic Deposits

Mineral Residence of PGE in Chromitites

PGE Abundance in Chromitites

GEOLOGY OF BASE METAL DEPOSITS

Deposit Types and their Modes of Origin

Major Sources of Base Metals

GOLD DEPOSITS

Mineralogy of Gold

Geochemistry of Gold

Fluids in Gold Deposits

Magmatic Systems

Magmatic-Hydrothermal Systems

Alluvial or Placer Gold Deposits

Witwatersrand-Type Deposits

TYPES OF NONMETALLIC ORE- MINERAL RESOURCES

What are Industrial Minerals?

The Geological Development of Industrial Minerals

Industrial Minerals in National Economies

Characteristics of Industrial Minerals

Demand for Industrial Minerals

Value of Industrial Minerals

Future Trends in Industrial Minerals

DIAMONDS, KIMBERLITES AND LAMPROITES

Kimberlites and Lamproites

Distribution of Diamond Deposits and World Production

The Origin of Diamond

Factors of Diamond Potential

Exploration and Exploitation

Industrial Diamonds

MINERAL RESOURCES: NATURE'S MOST VERSATILE LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEM

Uses of Metals and Minerals

The Scale of World Demand

Distribution of Mineral Resources and Reserves

Mining as a Source of Supply

Alternative Sources of Mineral Raw Materials

Replenishment of Resources

Sustainable Mining

REGIONAL GEOLOGY

Introduction: Regional Geology Defined

Methodology of Regional Geology

Continental Tectonics

Tectonic Compatibility in Regional Geology

Sources for Regional Geology

GEOLOGY OF EUROPE

Geological and Geophysical Overview

Laurentian Basement

Fennosarmatia and the East European Platform

Late Neoproterozoic and Paleozoic Orogens

Mesozoic-Tertiary Orogens

Post-Variscan Sedimentary Basins

Cenozoic Intraplate Magmatism

Quaternary Glaciation and Periglacial Deposits

Resources

THE GEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF AFRICA

The Archean between 3800-2550 MA: Formation of Cratons

Paleoproterozoic Growth of Archean Cratonic Blocks: the Eburnian

Mesoproterozoic Continental Break-up and Growth

Neoproterozoic Continental Break-up and Growth

The Phanerozoic Evolution of Africa

GEOLOGY OF ASIA

First-order Tectonic Units of Asia

Continental Nuclei

North Tarim Craton

Orogenic Systems

Neotectonics of Asia

Quaternary Geology of Asia

Economic Geology

THE GEOLOGY OF AUSTRALIA

Archaean (>2500 Ma)

Proterozoic

Palaeozoic

Mesozoic (251 to 65 Ma)

Cainozoic (<65 Ma)

Mineral Resources

THE GEOLOGY OF NORTH AMERICA

Archean (>2500 Ma)

Proterozoic

Paleozoic (540 to 251 Ma)

Mesozoic (251 to 65 Ma)

Cenozoic (65 Ma to 1.6 Ma)

Quaternary (>1.6 Ma)

Geology of Mexico, Central America, and Cuba

Mineral Resources

THE GEOLOGY OF SOUTH AMERICA

Cratonic Regions

Neoproterozoic Orogenic Systems

Paleozoic Basement and Marginal Belts in Southwestern South America: Patagonia

The Andes

Sedimentary Basins

THE GEOLOGY OF ANTARCTICA

East Antarctic Shield

Pre-Ross geology and the Ross Orogeny in the Trans Antarctic Mountains Region

Palaeozoic to Mesozoic Sedimentation on the East Antarctic Continent: The Beacon Supergroup and its Correlatives

Mesozoic Continental Flood Basalt Magmatism in East Antarctica: the Ferrar Large Igneous Province (FLIP)

West Antarctica Microplates: Configuration and Evolution

Evolution of the Active Margin of West Antarctica: The Antarctic Peninsula

East Antarctic/West Antarctic Connections: The Ross Sea Rift and Uplift of the TAM

Glacial History: the Icing on the Geocake

INTRODUCTION: ENVIRONMENTAL AND ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

Introduction: Environmental and Engineering Geology

Geohazards

Soil and Water Resources

Mining and the Environment

Disposal of Waste

Land Evaluation and Site Assessment

Geology and Construction

ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY AND PLANNING

Conservation, Restoration, and Reclamation of Land

Geological Hazards and Planning

Risk Assessment

Hazard Maps

NATURAL HAZARDS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Volcanic Activity

Earthquakes

Landslides and Slope Movements

River Action and Flooding

Marine Action

Wind Action and Arid Regions

Glacial Hazards

Dissolution of Rocks

Gases

SOILS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Origin of soil

Soil horizons

Soil fertility

Pedological soil types

Properties of soil

Engineering soil classification

Soil erosion

Erosion control and conservation practices

Soil surveys

Problem soils

WATER RESOURCES AND THE ENVIRONMENT

The Hydrological Cycle

Reservoirs

Dam Sites

Groundwater

Wells

Safe Yield

Artificial Recharge

Conjunctive Use

Water Quality

Irrigation

MINING AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Subsidence

Surface Mining

Dredge Mining

Waste Materials from Mining

Acid Mine Drainage and Suspended Solids

Heap Leaching

Spontaneous Combustion

Gases

Mineral Dusts

WASTE AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Domestic Refuse and Sanitary Landfills

Hazardous Wastes

Radioactive Waste

Waste Disposal and Contamination

LAND EVALUATION AND SITE ASSESSMENT

Remote Sensing

Aerial Photographs and Photogeology

Applied Geological Maps

Geographical Information Systems

Terrain Evaluation

Land Capability Studies

Site Investigation

Geophysical Exploration

In Situ Testing

GEOLOGY AND CONSTRUCTION

Open Excavation

Tunnels and Tunneling

Shaft and Raises

Underground Caverns

Highways

Foundations for Buildings

GROUNDWATER: PLANNING AND PROTECTION

The Importance of Groundwater

Basic Concepts in Hydrogeology

Hydrogeological Studies

Hydrogeological Maps

Groundwater Exploitation

Groundwater Contamination

GEOPHYSICS AND GEOCHEMISTRY

Why Study Geophysics and Geochemistry?

Structure of the Earth’s System

History of Geophysics and Geochemistry

Structure of the Solid Earth

Geodynamics, Tectonic Processes and Surface Processes

Seismology and Volcanology

Geothermics

Gravimetry and Shape of the Earth

Geomagnetism and Geoelectricity

Geochemistry

Aeronomy and Magnetosphere

Solar Wind

Planetology

Origin of the Earth, of Life, and Cosmochemistry

Prospects of Geophysics and Geochemistry.

SEISMOLOGY AND VOLCANOLOGY

Seismology

Volcanology

CONTINENTAL CRUST

Methods of Continental Crust Studies

Average Seismic Structure of Continental Crust

Types of Continental Crust

Physical Properties of Continental Crust

Composition of Continental Crust

Crustal Evolution

THE OCEANIC LITHOSPHERE

Background: Mid-Ocean Ridges and the oceanic lithosphere

Methods of study of the oceanic lithosphere

Components of the oceanic lithosphere and their physical properties

Structure of the oceanic lithosphere

Forming the oceanic lithosphere at the ridge axis

The rheology of the oceanic lithosphere

Fluids in the oceanic lithosphere: Electrical conductivity structure

MANTLE AND CORE OF THE EARTH

Seismic Methods

Radial Structure of the Earth

Upper Mantle

Lower Mantle

Core

EARTHQUAKE GROUND MOTION

Theoretical Basis

Earthquake Ground Motion

EARTHQUAKE MECHANICS

History—Earthquakes and Faults

Description of Faults and Earthquakes

Methods of Studying Earthquakes

Physical Processes of Fault Development and Earthquakes

Seismology and Earthquake Rupture Models

Implications for Seismic Hazard

FREQUENCY AND SEVERITY OF EARTHQUAKES: EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC EVENT PREDICTION

The Earthquake Threat

Earthquake Prediction

The Danger and Prediction of Volcanic Eruptions

VOLCANOLOGY: VOLCANIC ACTIVITIES, CHEMISTRY AND EFFECTS ON ENVIRONMENT

Volcanic Edifices

Mechanisms of Magma Formation and Transport

Magma Composition and Types of Eruptions

Classification of eruptions

Pre-eruptive phenomena

Eruptive Products and Volcanic Hazard

Eruption Forecast

GRAVIMETRY

Newton’s theory of potential

Potential of some simple formations, approximate in shape to the figure of the Earth

Potential of the centrifugal force, gravity force

Bruns’ formula, Clairaut problem

Gravitational constant

Geoid

Characteristics of the Earth’s gravity field

Gravity measurements

Reduction of gravity measurements, Faye anomaly, Bouguer anomaly

Other types of anomalies

Reference surface

Projection method of transforming one rotational ellipsoid into another one

Equipotential (level) surface

Deflections of the vertical, Laplace equation

The curvature of level surface (the convergence of level surfaces)

Boundary condition of the gravity disturbing potential

Stokes formula

Solution of the inner Stokes problem for a sphere

Vening-Meinesz formulae

Molodensky quasigeoid

Heights above the sea level

Generalization of the system of normal heights

Ellipsoidal heights, astronomic leveling

Determination of the trigonometric heights

Astro-gravimetric leveling

EARTH'S GRAVITY FIELD

Pizzetti’s Theory of the Equipotential Ellipsoid

Relation of the Geodetic System of Coordinates to Pizzetti’s System

Determining the System of Coordinates within Earth

GRAVIMETRIC MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

Introduction: Gravity Basics

Types of Gravity Meters

Gravity Gradiometry

Gravity Measurement From Space

Future Directions

APPLICATIONS OF GRAVIMETRY AND METHODS OF SURVEY

Gravity Representation of the Deformable Earth and its Models

Gravimetric Surveys Based on Various Space and Terrestrial Observations

GRAVITY ANOMALIES

Free Air and Bouguer Gravity Anomalies

Separation of Gravity Anomalies

Analytical Operations

Isostasy

Interpretation and Modeling

Applications

GEOCHEMISTRY AND COSMOCHEMISTRY

Introduction to geochemistry and cosmochemistry

Geologic processes on the Earth

Plate tectonics and the carbon-silicate cycle

Stable isotope climate studies

Cosmochemical materials

Principles of radioisotopic dating

Dynamical simulations of the growth of planets

Origin of the Moon—cosmochemical and dynamical constraints

Origin of water on the Earth and Mars

Environmental geochemistry

The future of geochemistry and cosmochemistry

GEOCHEMICAL ORIGINS OF THE EARTH

Formation of the Solar System

Formation of the Earth

Formation of the Atmosphere and Oceans

Early Crust and the Evolution of the Mantle

Formation of the Core

GASEOUS GEOCHEMICAL CYCLES

Earth’s Atmosphere

Carbon

Nitrogen

Oxygen

Sulfur

SEDIMENTARY GEOCHEMISTRY

Origin of Sedimentary Material

Sedimentation

Transformation

STABLE ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY

Background

Elements, Nuclides, and Stable Isotopes

The Mass Spectrometer and Isotope Ratio Measurement

Isotope Fractionation

Temperature and Fractionation

Stable Isotopes in the Hydrologic Cycle

18O in Minerals and Rocks

13C and Carbon Cycling

15N Cycling in Watersheds

34S and the Sulfur Cycle

Chlorine and Bromine Isotopes

Light Lithophile Elements: d6Li and d11B

ENVIRONMENTAL GEOCHEMISTRY

Time and Space Scales

Chemical Principles

Geochemical Partitioning

Environmental Contaminants

Environmental Change and Human Impact

COSMOCHEMISTRY

Origin of the Elements

Classification of Chemical Elements

Composition of the Solar System

Processes Recorded in Meteorites

Solar System and Planetary Formation

Origin of Life—a Cosmochemical View

CELESTIAL MECHANICS

ORBITAL RESONANCES IN PLANETARY SYSTEMS

Secular Resonances

Mean Motion Resonances

Epilogue

OCEANOGRAPHY

The oceans

Physical oceanography

Chemistry of the oceans

Biology of the oceans

Geology of the oceans

Coral reef studies

Human uses of oceans

Ocean engineering

Ocean modeling

BIOLOGICAL OCEANOGRAPHY

Organic Matter in the Sea

Functional Groups of Marine Pelagic Organisms

Effects of Ocean Physics and Light

Effects of Inorganic and Organic Substances on Marine Organisms

Effects of Marine Organisms on Inorganic and Organic Substances

Interactions Among Groups of Marine Organisms

Pelagic Food Webs

Perspectives

OCEANS AS MAJOR RESERVOIRS OF PROTEIN

Oceanic Primary Production

Capture Fisheries

Marine Aquaculture

Oceans as a Source of High-Quality Protein

MARINE BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES: EFFECTS ON CLIMATE AND RESPONSE TO CLIMATE CHANGE

Carbon and Carbonate Cycles

Interaction with the Nutrient Cycles

Interactions with Climate and Environmental Changes

MARINE BIODIVERSITY

Four Kinds of Biodiversity on Our Planet

How do we Know About Biodiversity?

Species Biodiversity in the Oceans

High-level Marine Biodiversity

Ecological Marine Biodiversity

Genetic Marine Biodiversity

Marine Biodiversity in Danger

MODELS AND FUNCTIONING OF MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

Bacteria, their viral parasites, and their protozoan predators

Adding a phytoplankton competitor to the bacteria

Opening the model to export and import

The concept of characteristic time scales and hierarchical dynamic systems

Adding a diatom-copepod food chain

Higher trophic levels

A full ecosystem model?

LITTORAL ZONE

The Extent of the Littoral Zone

Types of Primary Producers in the Littoral Zone

Littoral Ecosystems

The Functions of the Littoral Zone

The Value of the Littoral Zone to Society

Threats to the Littoral Zone

DEEP SEA BENTHOS, CONTRASTING ECOSYSTEMS

Introduction: The Exploration of the Depths

In the Reign of Zoology

New Technologies

Functional Ecology, Trophic Levels and Biology

Communities Based on Chemolithotrophy

Deep-sea Biodiversity

Abyss and the Origin of Life

GEOGRAPHY

Scope of Geography

Main Topics and Fields of Geography

Historical Perspectives

Future Trends

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Historical Background

The Main Fields of Study

Past Environmental Change

Global Environmental Change

Applied Physical Geography

GEOMORPHOLOGY

Development of Geomorphology

Main Concepts, Research Lines, and Methods

Structural Geomorphology

Weathering and Soils

Morphoclimatic Zones and Special Landform Associations

Process Domains

Environmental and Global Change

CLIMATE AS LIFE-SUPPORT SYSTEMS: A CLIMATOLOGICAL OVERVIEW

Physical Representation

Impacts of Climate on Systems

Interactions between Climate and Human Activities

HYDROLOGY

Scope of hydrology

The Hydrological cycle

Historical background

Main components of the hydrological cycle

Water quality

Paleohydrology

Extreme hydrological events: floods and drought

Impact of Human Activities And Climate Change on the Hydrological Cycle

BIOGEOGRAPHY

Introduction: defining the indefinable

History of biogeography

The major approaches to biogeography

Towards an applied biogeography

SOIL GEOGRAPHY

Concepts and definitions

Historical background

The soil profile

Soil properties

Factors and processes of soil formation

Climate-soil and vegetation-soil relationships

Soil Classification

Geographical distribution

Environmental issues

COASTAL SYSTEMS

Coasts

Coastal Systems

Case Study: The Coast of Suriname

THE OCEAN SYSTEM

Managing the Ocean Ecosystem

The Ocean Facing Climate Change

Ocean Resource Uses

Ocean Governance

The Sustainable Ocean

Recapitulation

MOUNTAIN GEOECOLOGY. THE EVOLUTION OF INTELLECTUALLY-BASED SCHOLARSHIP INTO A POLITICAL FORCE FOR SUSTAINABLE MOUNTAIN DEVELOPMENT

Introduction and Definition

Scientific Foundation

Development before 1990

Scientific Progress

Political Engagement

Current Status

Research Priorities

Specific Research Requirements

Indicators, Knowledge Management, and Sustainable Development

NATURAL HAZARDS

Introduction - What is A Natural Hazard?

Vulnerability - The Fundamental Counterpart of Hazard

Risk - The Product of Hazard and Vulnerability

Perception - A Vital Factor in Hazard and Risk Analysis

Natural Hazards and the Classification Problem

Natural Hazard Mitigation

Managing Natural Hazards

Natural Hazards and the Question of Poverty

LAND DEGRADATION AND DESERTIFICATION: HISTORY, NATURE, CAUSES, CONSEQUENCES, AND SOLUTIONS

A Brief Historical Review of Land Degradation

The Forms of Land Degradation

Research into the Causes of Land Degradation

Consequences of Land Degradation

Integrated Solutions and the Delimitation of Planning Regions

HUMAN GEOGRAPHY

Historical Background

The Main Fields Of Study

Alternative Approaches To Thematic Studies

The Present Human Geographical Problems

POPULATION GEOGRAPHY

Introduction to Population Geography

The current state of the Population Geography

The world population

The agricultural models

The demographic transition

Evolution of the European pattern of growth

The American pattern of growth

The models of quick transition

Perspectives on Population Geography

CULTURAL AND SOCIAL GEOGRAPHY

The Cultural Approach and the New Epistemological Bases of Geography

AGRICULTURAL AND RURAL GEOGRAPHY

Agricultural Change

Changing Geographical Perspectives

Agricultural Geography

Rural Geography

Introduction

Conclusion

GEOGRAPHY OF INDUSTRY AND TRANSPORT

Introduction: A Relational Science

General Concepts and Processes

The Theoretical and Methodological Tradition

A World in Transition

The Local Synthesis

Transport and Territorial Organization

GEOGRAPHY OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES

Global and Regional Economic Integration

Industrial Districts and Clustering

Geography of Innovation

Knowledge-Based Economy and Services

Sustainable Industrialization

Future Trends and Perspectives

URBAN GEOGRAPHY

Introduction. The Scope of Urban Geography

Changing Approaches in Urban Geography

The City and the Changing Economic Context

The Global Context of Urbanization

Residential Differentiation and Segregation

City Growth and Urban Governance

The Urban Future

MEDICAL GEOGRAPHY

Medical Geography

Health Geography

New Ways of Looking at Old and New Problems

POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY

First and Second Stages of Development

Third Stage

Fourth Stage

The World Systems Theory

Concepts of the State in Political Geography

Postmodernism and the Construction of Space

Territoriality, Ethnic, and Political Identity

The Problem of Scale, the Concept of Place, and the Contextual Approach

GEOGRAPHY OF TOURISM

Defining Tourism

The Development of the Geography of Tourism

Demand for Tourism

Tourism Supply

Impacts of Tourism

Tourism Planning

Trends for the Twenty-first Century

REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY

Introduction: Regional Geography, the Oldest Type of Geography

How to Define a Region?

From Administrative Regions to Cultural Regions

The Applied Side of Regional Geography

The Renewal of Regional Identities

Regional Science: A New Way of Analyzing Regions and Regional Development

ENVIRONMENTAL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION: CLIMATE SYSTEM

Processes in the Global Climate System

Climate Now

Weather Systems and Weather Forecasting

Observed climate change in the twentieth Century

Global Climate Models

Climate Projections and Future Climate

International Activity Concerning Climate

GEOINFORMATICS

Fundamentals

Measurement and Spatial Sampling

Remote Sensing

Geographical Information Systems

Spatial Statistics

International Cooperation

REMOTE SENSING AND ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING

Digital Data Processing

PHYSICAL BASIS OF REMOTE SENSING

Overview of Remote Sensing and Common Remote Sensing Systems

Electromagnetic Radiation

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Sources of Electromagnetic Radiation

Interaction of Electromagnetic Radiation with the Atmosphere

Electromagnetic Radiation from Earth’s Surface

Sensors

FIELD SPECTROSCOPY

Principles of Spectroscopy

The Natural Radiation Environment

Visualisation of the Bidirectional Reflectance Distribution Function

Historical Development of Field Spectroscopy

Field Measurement of Reflectance Factors

Applications of Field Spectroscopy

Emerging Technologies for Field Spectroscopy

SATELLITE REMOTE SENSING

The Components of a Satellite Remote Sensing Systems

Ground Facilities

Satellite Programs

Applications of Satellite Remote Sensing

Land-Based Applications

Oceanographic Applications

Meteorological Applications

Atmospheric Sounding

Modern and Future Systems

IMAGING SPECTROMETRY

Introduction and Historical Perspective

Physics of Spectroscopy

Airborne Imaging Spectrometer Systems

Airborne Simulators

Spaceborne Imaging Spectrometer Systems

Data Acquisition and Pre-processing of Imaging Spectrometer Data

Thematic Analysis Techniques for Absorption Feature Extraction

Applications of Imaging Spectrometry

RADAR REMOTE SENSING

Basic Properties of Radar Systems

Characteristics of Radar Systems

What a Radar Measures

Radar Sensors and Their Applications

Synthetic Aperture Radar Applications

Future Prospects

NASA EARTH SCIENCE ENTERPRISE: A NEW WINDOW ON OUR WORLD

A Scientific Vision—The Earth as a System

A View From Above—Characterizing the Earth System

Taking It All In—Understanding the Earth System

Getting There From Here—Predicting Earth System Change

ADVANCED GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Introduction: the Information Society and Geographic Information Systems

Geographic Data: What Are They, and How To Integrate Them?

Technology: What Lies Around a GIS?

Software: What Is a Geographic Information System?

People and Geographic Systems: Who and Where is the User?

Geographic Applications: Everything, Everywhere, Everywhen

Future Developments: What Might Lie Ahead?

NATURAL DISASTERS

The role of hazards in the life of nature and society

Geological disasters

Natural hydrometeorological disasters

Natural hazards in mountains

GEOLOGICAL CATASTROPHES

Earthquakes

Tsunami

Eruption of volcanoes

Rockbursts

THE NATURE OF EARTHQUAKES

Distribution of earthquakes on the Earth,

Reasons for earthquakes in the Earth's crust

Types of the Earth's lithosphere and Plate Tectonics

Types of seismic waves

Measurement of the size of an earthquake

The models of earthquake source

Nature of deep (mantle) earthquakes

Earthquake recurrence interval study

Earthquakes as a motor for geodynamic processes

Correspondence of an earthquake with time and weather

EARTHQUAKE PARAMETERS INCLUDING STRONG EARTHQUAKES

Locating an earthquake

Earthquake magnitude and intensity

Data distribution

Seismic moment and moment magnitude

Focal mechanism of earthquake

Design parameters for use in engineering applications

Perspectives

INDUCED SEISMICITY

Seismicity induced by natural processes

Seismicity induced by technogenic impacts

Discussion

SEISMIC ZONING

Earthquake Hazard

Global Seismicity

Models of Earthquake Occurrence Source Zones

Model of Seismic Effect

Probabilistic Seismic Zoning

Global Seismic Hazard

SEISMOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AND GEODYNAMIC ZONING PREDICTIONS

Historical overview

Current seismological observations

Seismicity of the Earth and geodynamic zones

Perspectives

TSUNAMIS: CAUSES, CONSEQUENCES, PREDICTION, AND RESPONSE

Causes of tsunamis.

Consequences of tsunamis and kindred phenomena.

Tsunami prediction and tsunami warning systems around the world.

Tsunami mitigation and steps to reduce potential losses.

VOLCANISM: GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHIC PERSPECTIVES

Geographical distribution

Geological relationships: the comparison of continental and oceanic volcanism

Volcanic rocks of the oceanic basins

Volcanism of continental areas

Orogenic volcanism

VOLCANISM: HISTORICAL AND HUMAN PERSPECTIVES

Volcanoes as rebuilders of landscape

Volcanism and biosphere

Catastrophic eruptions

Counteraction to lava flow

Prediction of eruptions

Volcanoes as benefactors

CLIMATE-RELATED HAZARDS

Description and major types of climate-related natural hazards

Interdependence and scale of the various climate-related hazards

Comparative analysis of climate-related natural hazards

Human perception of climate-related hazards

Forecast and prediction of climate-related hazards

DROUGHTS: CAUSES, DISTRIBUTION, AND CONSEQUENCES

What Is Drought?

Criteria of Drought

Causes of Drought

Possibility of Predicting Droughts

Distribution of Droughts

Consequences of Droughts

DRY WINDS, DUST STORMS, AND PREVENTION OF DAMAGE TO AGRICULTURAL LAND

Dry winds

Dust Storms

CYCLONES, HURRICANES, TYPHOONS, AND TORNADOES

Atmospheric whirls of different scales and origin

What are they like?

What should we expect?

NATURAL HAZARDS CAUSED BY SOLID PRECIPITATION

What is solid precipitation?

Rime and Glaze

Hail

Snowstorms and snowdrifts

CLASSIFICATION OF FLOODS

Factors and Conditions of Flood Generation

River Floods

Inundation of Seacoasts

Floods of Inland Seas and Lakes

Human Impact

FLOODS AND SOIL EROSION

Water Erosion

Watershed Erosion

Fluvial Systems

FLOOD CONTROL FOR SPECIFIC TYPES OF FLOODS

Flood Effects

Flood Damage

Flood Control

Floods of Recent Times: Is Flood Protection Effective?

FOREST FIRES AND DYNAMICS OF FOREST COVER

Forest and fire

Global and national statistics on forest fires

The fire rotation in forests

Fire as instrument of forest ecosystem management

What is the impact of fire on forests?

Pyrogenic successions of forest vegetation

Forest fires in boreal forests of North Eurasia

Forest fires and carbon emission

Anti-fire forest protection measures

FIRES IN STEPPES AND SAVANNAS

Grasslands and fire

Fire as a factor of deforestation of grassland ecosystems

Fire as an instrument of regulation of grassland ecosystems dynamics

Pyrogenic fluctuations and succession in grassland ecosystems

Geographical aspects of fires in grasslands

Fire and carbon emissions

SUB-SURFACE PEAT FIRES

Surface fires as a factor of spread of peat fires

The causes of peat fires

What types of bogs are susceptible to underground fires?

The peat fires on tropical wetlands

Underground fires and carbon emissions

ENVIRONMENTAL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION: EARTH SYSTEM